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"content": "Battle of Catalaunian Plains<br />1573 years ago today in 451, King Theodoric and the Visigoths help the Roman Empire stop Atilla The Hun for the first time in the Battle of Catalaunian Plains.<br /><br />Nearly 75 years before this in 376 AD, hundreds of thousands of Visigoths and Ostrogoths sought refuge from the Huns within the Roman Empire. But they were not peaceful, raiding and sacking the Balkans, Gaul, and Italy. Then in a battle noted for their skill and reliance of mounted warriors. The Goths easily defeated the Roman legions and killed Emperor Valens in Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD.<br /><br />The next Roman Emperor Theodosius I was able to make a deal with the Goths, but not from a position of strength. A Roman civil war broke out in 392 and Theodosius’s victory would make him the last emperor to briefly rule the entire Roman Empire. But his death in 394 brought the permanent political division of Eastern & Western Roman territory. The Goths would continue to invade and be offered generous peace treaties from the Romans throughout the next few decades. While the Huns ransacked and conquered all the German provinces that Rome had struggled with for centuries.<br /><br />Atilla the Hun was at the head of a large horde from the Great Hungarian Plain, and his first invasion of the Roman Empire began in 440 AD crossing the Danube River. The Romans were unable to deal with the crisis as they were in a war with the Vandals in Africa. The Huns employed superiorly mounted troops that overcame all on the battlefield. They also used heavy siege weapons, capturing fortified cities in a quick succession never seen before. And their terror spread further as they would commonly massacre entire civilian populations they came across. And Atilla was only stopped by the complex fortifications around Constantinople, famously known as the Theodosian Walls. Which would continue to protect the city for another 1000 years. Atilla remained undefeated militarily except for these walls. And it was not that he failed to storm them but left Roman territory in 447 AD accepting generous tribune payments. He would invade Rome again in 451 AD after tribune payments stopped.<br /><br />Flavius Aetius was a Roman general born in 390 AD. He spent his childhood amongst the Huns as a hostage and would use his influence with them to defeat the Eastern Roman Empire in a civil war. For this Aetius was given a prominent military position in the Western Roman Empire. And he began his career as the last great military leader in Western Roman history. With numerous campaigns against barbarians across the provinces. Aetius was merciful to many of the barbarians he defeated because he was aware that the greatest threat to Rome and all of Europe was the Huns. One of the famous benefactors of his mercy was the Visigoth King Theodoric I.<br /><br />Theodoric was also born in 390 AD, a son of Visigoth King Alaric I who infamously sacked the city of Rome in 410 AD. Theodoric became king in 418 AD and a few years later invaded Italy. He was defeated by the Romans and was mercifully ordered to migrate his people into Gaul (modern day France). There the Goths had their own independent kingdom, with the condition that if the time came. They would answer Rome’s call to war against their common enemy the Huns.<br /><br />The call from Rome came in the spring of 451AD when King Theodoric was old in age. Atilla began his invasion from Germany into Gaul. It was uncertain if Theodoric and his riders would answer Rome’s call for aid. Going to war for such tribal people came at great risk. The warriors riding into almost certain death wasn’t just the end of their lives. But it also implicated the ruin of their families who would be left defenseless in the aftermath. It could become the world’s end for their people. But Theodoric personally answered the call, and his mounted warriors were critical in balancing the upcoming fight.<br /><br />Atilla’s horde surrounded the city of Orleans in early June. An agreement was made to let the Huns into the city without resistance. But the citizens of Orleans were aware of Atilla’s reputation and rioted as the Huns entered. They desperately manned the defenses to keep them out. And as the Huns were about to breach the city, a blast from a Roman horn in the distance announced the arrival of the relief force. Aetius was in route with a collation of Romans, Franks, and Goths. Atilla broke the siege and positioned his army to lure the relief force into a trap. Both sides are each estimated to have fielded 30,000-50,000 soldiers in the upcoming confrontation. The battle began with Atilla unleashing his mounted archers on the Roman infantry who sprang the trap. Theodoric and his riders were positioned on the Roman’s right. And the agony of the Romans was on full display to the Goths. The Romans were not going to win this battle. They would be lucky to even retreat.<br /><br />As he rode to the front of his men, Theodoric could feel the fear from his riders and their uneasy steeds. He had brought them to their doom on behalf of the Romans. And the old king sat bent and motionless on his horse, cowed by age. But now the canopy of clouds over the battlefield parted, and the last few hours of daylight shined on him. As the rays from the sun made his long gray hair appear golden again, a gust of wind went through the Goths. The old king then sprang to life, tall and proud, his voice rose above the ongoing battle as he rode across the front of his men.<br /><br />This wasn’t a fight for conquest or plunder. It arguably wasn’t even a fight for survival. As Theodoric and the Goths could slink away back into the hills to survive on the run like their forefathers. But he reminded them that as their people once fled from this dreaded foe. They had simultaneously brought the great feared hegemony of Rome to their knees. And now Rome had offered them land, their new Christian god, and a league of friendship. While the Huns offered nothing but reckless hate. And today they were not going to flee from this hate, they were going to answer it in kind.<br /><br />The fatherly king reassured his sons that the upcoming battle was nothing to despair. Because no matter the result, this is where mortal men become heroes of songs and legends. Their actions this day will confirm to all who look back that they honored their word to stand against a foe the entire world feared. Now was the hour to fulfill oaths they had taken to him. And if they ride now, ride with their king, they will forever be remembered for it!<br /><br />Theodoric then blew a large horn that was answered by all the horns in the Gothic host. His horse then sprang away towards the Huns. A brief moment of hesitation from the riders appeared, but it was only to raise their weapons to cheer. And their thousands of voices became a singular shout to celebrate their king. The Goths then rode frantically to catch up with Theodoric, but he could not be overtaken. And they followed their king into the pantheon of all Germanic peoples.<br /><br /> The Huns saw the Gothic host building up on their flank and were amused by it. They were going to be challenged by the descendants of men who had fled across Europe to get away from them! The Huns eagerly formed ranks and fired volleys of arrows into the Gothic horsemen, but they could not dent their momentum. The untold number of people murdered by the Huns animated the riders to deliver vengeance. Their thousands of horses rushing onward shook the earth and sounded like a rockslide. And the only noise to rise above it was the roars of the riders bringing them to collision. And soon the Huns were no longer amused. Those of them on foot were trampled to death. And the Huns mounted on horses were hacked to pieces by the passing waves of riders. As they vanquished their once feared foes, the joy of battle was now upon the Goths. They cheered loud and sang as they slew.<br /><br /> The fury of Theodoric had prevented a disaster for the Roman coalition, but his rival was no ordinary chieftain. Atilla personally rode to rally his retreating forces, and he summoned his fiercest warriors upon the Goths. He chastised his men who fled and reminded them that his wrath was the most feared in all of Europe! He also promised a lifetime of wealth to any man who killed this arrogant king that dare challenge them. And with Atilla’s rally and counter-attack, evening came, and darkness began to overtake the battlefield. But Theodoric feared no darkness and would not wait for their onset. Outnumbered, he charged forth and soon his horse was killed, and his body trampled by it. Laying on the battlefield with a broken body, an Amali-Goth fighting for the Huns came up to Theodoric and killed him with a spear. The king’s slayers quickly fled to report of the deed.<br /><br />As the riders came upon the scene, the king’s heir Thorismund was notified of the news. And the Goths sang no more. Some wept at the sight of their slain king they had followed out of doubt and into glory. While they mourned, the Huns across the field salted their wound as they celebrated the man who felled their king. The momentum had now turned against the Goths and all parties watching were unsure of what they would do. Many men in Thorismund’s position would have found an excuse to abandon danger and survive the failing battle. They had already honored their word at great cost. And the concerned Gothic lords asked their new king how they should proceed, but all words failed him. Thorismund’s tearful heartbreak then turned to wrath, and he blew his horn and called for all the riders onto his location.<br /><br />At the front of the riders, Thorismund defiantly held his sword high and reared his horse. And when his steed’s two front legs stomped the ground, the riders answered his call of wrath with one voice, loud and terrible. A chilling cry from grieved men that go seeking death. The Huns were stunned by their renewed onset and pushed all the way into their camp. With Atilla’s focus shifted towards the Goths, Aetius threw in all his reserves to turn the battle into a stalemate. The battle was far from a decisive victory, but the next morning Atilla’s forces left the field. And his “aura of invincibility” shattered for the rest of his life.<br /><br />For his prominent military service, Flavius Aetius would be assassinated by a jealous Emperor. And 25 years after this battle in 476 AD, a day came when the Western Roman Empire was no more. The Franks would also forsake their friendship with the Goths and drive them into Spain. But June 20th 451 AD was not this day. It was a day when a fellowship of men made their stand against the great unstoppable terror of their world.<br /><br /> <br />[Online Refrences]<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Catalaunian-Plains\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Catalaunian-Plains</a> )<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://www.worldhistory.org/article/995/the-battle-of-the-catalaunian-fields/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.worldhistory.org/article/995/the-battle-of-the-catalaunian-fields/</a> )<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-battle-of-chalons-attilas-stinging-defeat/\" target=\"_blank\">https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-battle-of-chalons-attilas-stinging-defeat/</a> )<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-chalons-attila-the-hun-versus-flavius-aetius/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-chalons-attila-the-hun-versus-flavius-aetius/</a> )<br /> <br /> Artwork by Osprey Publishing(IF ANYONE CAN FIND THE SPECIFC ARTIST’S NAME PLEASE COMMENT BELOW SO I CAN GIVE PROPER CREDIT).<br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br /> <br /><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=otd\" title=\"#otd\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#otd</a><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=onthisday\" title=\"#onthisday\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#onthisday</a><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=onthisdayinhistory\" title=\"#onthisdayinhistory\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#onthisdayinhistory</a><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=history\" title=\"#history\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#history</a><br /><br />",
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"content": "Battle of Catalaunian Plains\n1573 years ago today in 451, King Theodoric and the Visigoths help the Roman Empire stop Atilla The Hun for the first time in the Battle of Catalaunian Plains.\n\nNearly 75 years before this in 376 AD, hundreds of thousands of Visigoths and Ostrogoths sought refuge from the Huns within the Roman Empire. But they were not peaceful, raiding and sacking the Balkans, Gaul, and Italy. Then in a battle noted for their skill and reliance of mounted warriors. The Goths easily defeated the Roman legions and killed Emperor Valens in Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD.\n\nThe next Roman Emperor Theodosius I was able to make a deal with the Goths, but not from a position of strength. A Roman civil war broke out in 392 and Theodosius’s victory would make him the last emperor to briefly rule the entire Roman Empire. But his death in 394 brought the permanent political division of Eastern & Western Roman territory. The Goths would continue to invade and be offered generous peace treaties from the Romans throughout the next few decades. While the Huns ransacked and conquered all the German provinces that Rome had struggled with for centuries.\n\nAtilla the Hun was at the head of a large horde from the Great Hungarian Plain, and his first invasion of the Roman Empire began in 440 AD crossing the Danube River. The Romans were unable to deal with the crisis as they were in a war with the Vandals in Africa. The Huns employed superiorly mounted troops that overcame all on the battlefield. They also used heavy siege weapons, capturing fortified cities in a quick succession never seen before. And their terror spread further as they would commonly massacre entire civilian populations they came across. And Atilla was only stopped by the complex fortifications around Constantinople, famously known as the Theodosian Walls. Which would continue to protect the city for another 1000 years. Atilla remained undefeated militarily except for these walls. And it was not that he failed to storm them but left Roman territory in 447 AD accepting generous tribune payments. He would invade Rome again in 451 AD after tribune payments stopped.\n\nFlavius Aetius was a Roman general born in 390 AD. He spent his childhood amongst the Huns as a hostage and would use his influence with them to defeat the Eastern Roman Empire in a civil war. For this Aetius was given a prominent military position in the Western Roman Empire. And he began his career as the last great military leader in Western Roman history. With numerous campaigns against barbarians across the provinces. Aetius was merciful to many of the barbarians he defeated because he was aware that the greatest threat to Rome and all of Europe was the Huns. One of the famous benefactors of his mercy was the Visigoth King Theodoric I.\n\nTheodoric was also born in 390 AD, a son of Visigoth King Alaric I who infamously sacked the city of Rome in 410 AD. Theodoric became king in 418 AD and a few years later invaded Italy. He was defeated by the Romans and was mercifully ordered to migrate his people into Gaul (modern day France). There the Goths had their own independent kingdom, with the condition that if the time came. They would answer Rome’s call to war against their common enemy the Huns.\n\nThe call from Rome came in the spring of 451AD when King Theodoric was old in age. Atilla began his invasion from Germany into Gaul. It was uncertain if Theodoric and his riders would answer Rome’s call for aid. Going to war for such tribal people came at great risk. The warriors riding into almost certain death wasn’t just the end of their lives. But it also implicated the ruin of their families who would be left defenseless in the aftermath. It could become the world’s end for their people. But Theodoric personally answered the call, and his mounted warriors were critical in balancing the upcoming fight.\n\nAtilla’s horde surrounded the city of Orleans in early June. An agreement was made to let the Huns into the city without resistance. But the citizens of Orleans were aware of Atilla’s reputation and rioted as the Huns entered. They desperately manned the defenses to keep them out. And as the Huns were about to breach the city, a blast from a Roman horn in the distance announced the arrival of the relief force. Aetius was in route with a collation of Romans, Franks, and Goths. Atilla broke the siege and positioned his army to lure the relief force into a trap. Both sides are each estimated to have fielded 30,000-50,000 soldiers in the upcoming confrontation. The battle began with Atilla unleashing his mounted archers on the Roman infantry who sprang the trap. Theodoric and his riders were positioned on the Roman’s right. And the agony of the Romans was on full display to the Goths. The Romans were not going to win this battle. They would be lucky to even retreat.\n\nAs he rode to the front of his men, Theodoric could feel the fear from his riders and their uneasy steeds. He had brought them to their doom on behalf of the Romans. And the old king sat bent and motionless on his horse, cowed by age. But now the canopy of clouds over the battlefield parted, and the last few hours of daylight shined on him. As the rays from the sun made his long gray hair appear golden again, a gust of wind went through the Goths. The old king then sprang to life, tall and proud, his voice rose above the ongoing battle as he rode across the front of his men.\n\nThis wasn’t a fight for conquest or plunder. It arguably wasn’t even a fight for survival. As Theodoric and the Goths could slink away back into the hills to survive on the run like their forefathers. But he reminded them that as their people once fled from this dreaded foe. They had simultaneously brought the great feared hegemony of Rome to their knees. And now Rome had offered them land, their new Christian god, and a league of friendship. While the Huns offered nothing but reckless hate. And today they were not going to flee from this hate, they were going to answer it in kind.\n\nThe fatherly king reassured his sons that the upcoming battle was nothing to despair. Because no matter the result, this is where mortal men become heroes of songs and legends. Their actions this day will confirm to all who look back that they honored their word to stand against a foe the entire world feared. Now was the hour to fulfill oaths they had taken to him. And if they ride now, ride with their king, they will forever be remembered for it!\n\nTheodoric then blew a large horn that was answered by all the horns in the Gothic host. His horse then sprang away towards the Huns. A brief moment of hesitation from the riders appeared, but it was only to raise their weapons to cheer. And their thousands of voices became a singular shout to celebrate their king. The Goths then rode frantically to catch up with Theodoric, but he could not be overtaken. And they followed their king into the pantheon of all Germanic peoples.\n\n The Huns saw the Gothic host building up on their flank and were amused by it. They were going to be challenged by the descendants of men who had fled across Europe to get away from them! The Huns eagerly formed ranks and fired volleys of arrows into the Gothic horsemen, but they could not dent their momentum. The untold number of people murdered by the Huns animated the riders to deliver vengeance. Their thousands of horses rushing onward shook the earth and sounded like a rockslide. And the only noise to rise above it was the roars of the riders bringing them to collision. And soon the Huns were no longer amused. Those of them on foot were trampled to death. And the Huns mounted on horses were hacked to pieces by the passing waves of riders. As they vanquished their once feared foes, the joy of battle was now upon the Goths. They cheered loud and sang as they slew.\n\n The fury of Theodoric had prevented a disaster for the Roman coalition, but his rival was no ordinary chieftain. Atilla personally rode to rally his retreating forces, and he summoned his fiercest warriors upon the Goths. He chastised his men who fled and reminded them that his wrath was the most feared in all of Europe! He also promised a lifetime of wealth to any man who killed this arrogant king that dare challenge them. And with Atilla’s rally and counter-attack, evening came, and darkness began to overtake the battlefield. But Theodoric feared no darkness and would not wait for their onset. Outnumbered, he charged forth and soon his horse was killed, and his body trampled by it. Laying on the battlefield with a broken body, an Amali-Goth fighting for the Huns came up to Theodoric and killed him with a spear. The king’s slayers quickly fled to report of the deed.\n\nAs the riders came upon the scene, the king’s heir Thorismund was notified of the news. And the Goths sang no more. Some wept at the sight of their slain king they had followed out of doubt and into glory. While they mourned, the Huns across the field salted their wound as they celebrated the man who felled their king. The momentum had now turned against the Goths and all parties watching were unsure of what they would do. Many men in Thorismund’s position would have found an excuse to abandon danger and survive the failing battle. They had already honored their word at great cost. And the concerned Gothic lords asked their new king how they should proceed, but all words failed him. Thorismund’s tearful heartbreak then turned to wrath, and he blew his horn and called for all the riders onto his location.\n\nAt the front of the riders, Thorismund defiantly held his sword high and reared his horse. And when his steed’s two front legs stomped the ground, the riders answered his call of wrath with one voice, loud and terrible. A chilling cry from grieved men that go seeking death. The Huns were stunned by their renewed onset and pushed all the way into their camp. With Atilla’s focus shifted towards the Goths, Aetius threw in all his reserves to turn the battle into a stalemate. The battle was far from a decisive victory, but the next morning Atilla’s forces left the field. And his “aura of invincibility” shattered for the rest of his life.\n\nFor his prominent military service, Flavius Aetius would be assassinated by a jealous Emperor. And 25 years after this battle in 476 AD, a day came when the Western Roman Empire was no more. The Franks would also forsake their friendship with the Goths and drive them into Spain. But June 20th 451 AD was not this day. It was a day when a fellowship of men made their stand against the great unstoppable terror of their world.\n\n \n[Online Refrences]\n \n(https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Catalaunian-Plains )\n \n(https://www.worldhistory.org/article/995/the-battle-of-the-catalaunian-fields/ )\n \n(https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-battle-of-chalons-attilas-stinging-defeat/ )\n \n(https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-chalons-attila-the-hun-versus-flavius-aetius/ )\n \n Artwork by Osprey Publishing(IF ANYONE CAN FIND THE SPECIFC ARTIST’S NAME PLEASE COMMENT BELOW SO I CAN GIVE PROPER CREDIT).\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n \n\n#otd\n#onthisday\n#onthisdayinhistory\n#history\n\n",
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"content": "Battle of Shiroyama<br />146 years ago today in 1877, the last Samurai to rebel against the Japanese government are crushed by overwhelming numbers in the Battle of Shiroyama.<br /><br /><br />Saigō Takamori was born into a lower class of Samurai in the Japanese caste system. During his lifetime, Japan began to industrialize their nation and modernize it with political changes inspired by Europeans. The Meiji Restoration elevated the Imperial Government by restoring monarchy and abolishing the caste system that placed the Samurai on top. This would cause many of them to rebel against the new government in The Boshin War (1868-1869).<br /><br /><br />Despite objections from his Samurai caste, Saigō remained loyal and was a mentor for the new Emperor. Saigō trained and bravely led Imperial troops against the many Samurai factions that rebelled during The Boshin War. Once the rebellion was over, disagreements with the political class would inspire Saigō to retire from politics and seek a peaceful life as a military instructor. However factions within the new modernized government became concerned with Saigō’s influence amongst thousands of warriors and sent undercover agents to spy on him. When Saigō’s fiercely loyal students discovered the government agents, they tortured and killed many of them thinking they were assassins. The students then attacked a ship sent by the government to mediate the situation. <br /><br /><br />Saigō did not agree with the actions of his students and had no desire for a war against the emperor. He put on his old Imperial uniform to go visit Tokyo and deescalate the situation. But one of the worst winters in Japanese history prevented his travel and many of the Samurai took it as an omen to rebel. The Samurai pleaded with Saigō to stand up against the government, they convinced him that if he was on their side this time, they would be successful. Saigō reluctantly accepted to lead, and thousands of veteran warriors and young students flocked to the noble chieftain’s side. <br /><br /><br />The Samurai took the initiative and placed a government stronghold under siege in their territory. The government in response sent over 90,000 troops to face off against the rebel’s 15,000. After nearly 2 weeks of fighting and heavy losses, Saigō called off the siege and retreated around the island of Kyushu, leaving behind small numbers of rebel groups to engage in guerrilla warfare. The Samurai's goal was to get Saigō out of the Satsuma Province to inspire an uprising all across Japan. His forces continually escaped and out maneuvered the government troops for months until his force was severely diminished. The Samurai rebels withdrew to the mountain of Shiroyama overlooking the city of Kagoshima and began to fortify their position. The rebels were down to around 500 warriors and not wanting to take any chances, the Imperial government encircled this mountain with 30,000 soldiers and 5 modern warships making sure no escape was possible.<br /><br /><br />Unknown to the rebel leader, two of Saigō’s commanders went to the Imperial camp to negotiate saving the beloved Samurai legend. Leading the government’s troops was Saigō’s old Samurai friend and comrade, Yamagata Aritomo. Surrounding and outnumbering his old friend 60 to 1, Yamagata met with the rebel officers and broke his stoic military stature to quickly write a letter pleading with his old companion to surrender and avoid further effusion of blood:<br /><br /><br />“As the leader of young vigorous men of the nation and resisting a great and famous army through many fierce battles, your fame is already well enough known to the world…I beg you to judge for yourself as you hold matters in the palm of your hand, and that you will save both armies from death and injury...I, Aritomo, earnestly beg you as your old friend. Writing this my tears fall like rain, and I cannot express myself at all. Please sympathize with the sincerity of my pain.”<br /><br /><br />Bushido Code taught that with surrender came great shame, and when Saigō read the merciful letter from his old friend, he burned it with the Imperial uniform he wore loyally for many years to express that he would not change his mind. Saigō and the rebels spent their last month on earth training, writing poetry, and partaking in sake parties. Yamagata was ordered to issue a final assault to end the rebellion that was bankrupting the Imperial Government. <br /><br /><br />On the dark early morning of September 24th, the assault opened with a large artillery and naval barrage on the rebel position. The rebels were stunned by modern artillery as the Imperial infantry with a battle cry charged up the mountain. The Samurai shot muskets and arrows at the advancing Imperials until ~1000 year old swordsmanship went against 19th century soldiers in close quarters melee combat. The government conscripts suffered some causalities but were able to overrun the small numbers of Samurai and pick them apart with rifles. Saigō Takamori was wounded, and his final moments are still disputed with either him committing seppuku or having a friend assist him with his death.<br /><br /><br />Now leaderless and nearly all their comrades killed, the last surviving 40 Samurai adhered to tradition and refused to surrender. With dawn and the rising sun, the Samurai rushed down the mountain with swords drawn and were shot by the government conscripts. When the fighting was over, the Imperials tried to give the wounded Samurai medical aid, but they defiantly took their own lives and not a single one was taken alive. The feudal warrior class that had ruled Japan for centuries went out in a blaze and faded into history being defeated by foreign-made modern weaponry wielded by lower-class soldiers they despised. <br /><br /><br />In a tearful ceremony one decade later, Emperor Meiji would pardon Saigō of all wrongdoing during the rebellion, allowing his former mentor to become a celebrated and admired figure of Japanese history. Future generations of the Japanese military class would continue to embrace Samauri ideology. <br /><br /><br />[Online References]<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"http://www.historynet.com/satsuma-rebellion-satsuma-clan-samurai-against-the-imperial-japanese-army.htm/5\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.historynet.com/satsuma-rebellion-satsuma-clan-samurai-against-the-imperial-japanese-army.htm/5</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.thoughtco.com/satsuma-rebellion-battle-of-shiroyama-2360838\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.thoughtco.com/satsuma-rebellion-battle-of-shiroyama-2360838</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.mhistory.net/the-battle-of-shiroyama-and-the-fall-of-the-samurai/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mhistory.net/the-battle-of-shiroyama-and-the-fall-of-the-samurai/</a> )<br /><br /><br />Saigo Takamori:<br />(<a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/09-10/saigo-takamori-the-last-samurai/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/09-10/saigo-takamori-the-last-samurai/</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.thoughtco.com/figures-and-events-in-asian-history-s2-3896549\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.thoughtco.com/figures-and-events-in-asian-history-s2-3896549</a> )<br /><br /><br />The Meiji Restoration:<br />(<a href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm</a> )<br /><br /><br />[Book Reference]<br /><br /><br />Augustus Henry Mounsey was a British diplomat. His firsthand account of the Satsuma Rebellion published in 1879 gives the most detailed descriptions of the military campaigns of the rebellion. <br /><br /><br />The Satsuma Rebellion, an Episode of Modern Japanese History:<br />(<a href=\"https://archive.org/details/satsumarebellio01moungoog\" target=\"_blank\">https://archive.org/details/satsumarebellio01moungoog</a> )<br /><br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br /><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=onthisday\" title=\"#onthisday\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#onthisday</a><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=onthisdayinhistory\" title=\"#onthisdayinhistory\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#onthisdayinhistory</a><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=history\" title=\"#history\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#history</a>",
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"content": "Battle of Shiroyama\n146 years ago today in 1877, the last Samurai to rebel against the Japanese government are crushed by overwhelming numbers in the Battle of Shiroyama.\n\n\nSaigō Takamori was born into a lower class of Samurai in the Japanese caste system. During his lifetime, Japan began to industrialize their nation and modernize it with political changes inspired by Europeans. The Meiji Restoration elevated the Imperial Government by restoring monarchy and abolishing the caste system that placed the Samurai on top. This would cause many of them to rebel against the new government in The Boshin War (1868-1869).\n\n\nDespite objections from his Samurai caste, Saigō remained loyal and was a mentor for the new Emperor. Saigō trained and bravely led Imperial troops against the many Samurai factions that rebelled during The Boshin War. Once the rebellion was over, disagreements with the political class would inspire Saigō to retire from politics and seek a peaceful life as a military instructor. However factions within the new modernized government became concerned with Saigō’s influence amongst thousands of warriors and sent undercover agents to spy on him. When Saigō’s fiercely loyal students discovered the government agents, they tortured and killed many of them thinking they were assassins. The students then attacked a ship sent by the government to mediate the situation. \n\n\nSaigō did not agree with the actions of his students and had no desire for a war against the emperor. He put on his old Imperial uniform to go visit Tokyo and deescalate the situation. But one of the worst winters in Japanese history prevented his travel and many of the Samurai took it as an omen to rebel. The Samurai pleaded with Saigō to stand up against the government, they convinced him that if he was on their side this time, they would be successful. Saigō reluctantly accepted to lead, and thousands of veteran warriors and young students flocked to the noble chieftain’s side. \n\n\nThe Samurai took the initiative and placed a government stronghold under siege in their territory. The government in response sent over 90,000 troops to face off against the rebel’s 15,000. After nearly 2 weeks of fighting and heavy losses, Saigō called off the siege and retreated around the island of Kyushu, leaving behind small numbers of rebel groups to engage in guerrilla warfare. The Samurai's goal was to get Saigō out of the Satsuma Province to inspire an uprising all across Japan. His forces continually escaped and out maneuvered the government troops for months until his force was severely diminished. The Samurai rebels withdrew to the mountain of Shiroyama overlooking the city of Kagoshima and began to fortify their position. The rebels were down to around 500 warriors and not wanting to take any chances, the Imperial government encircled this mountain with 30,000 soldiers and 5 modern warships making sure no escape was possible.\n\n\nUnknown to the rebel leader, two of Saigō’s commanders went to the Imperial camp to negotiate saving the beloved Samurai legend. Leading the government’s troops was Saigō’s old Samurai friend and comrade, Yamagata Aritomo. Surrounding and outnumbering his old friend 60 to 1, Yamagata met with the rebel officers and broke his stoic military stature to quickly write a letter pleading with his old companion to surrender and avoid further effusion of blood:\n\n\n“As the leader of young vigorous men of the nation and resisting a great and famous army through many fierce battles, your fame is already well enough known to the world…I beg you to judge for yourself as you hold matters in the palm of your hand, and that you will save both armies from death and injury...I, Aritomo, earnestly beg you as your old friend. Writing this my tears fall like rain, and I cannot express myself at all. Please sympathize with the sincerity of my pain.”\n\n\nBushido Code taught that with surrender came great shame, and when Saigō read the merciful letter from his old friend, he burned it with the Imperial uniform he wore loyally for many years to express that he would not change his mind. Saigō and the rebels spent their last month on earth training, writing poetry, and partaking in sake parties. Yamagata was ordered to issue a final assault to end the rebellion that was bankrupting the Imperial Government. \n\n\nOn the dark early morning of September 24th, the assault opened with a large artillery and naval barrage on the rebel position. The rebels were stunned by modern artillery as the Imperial infantry with a battle cry charged up the mountain. The Samurai shot muskets and arrows at the advancing Imperials until ~1000 year old swordsmanship went against 19th century soldiers in close quarters melee combat. The government conscripts suffered some causalities but were able to overrun the small numbers of Samurai and pick them apart with rifles. Saigō Takamori was wounded, and his final moments are still disputed with either him committing seppuku or having a friend assist him with his death.\n\n\nNow leaderless and nearly all their comrades killed, the last surviving 40 Samurai adhered to tradition and refused to surrender. With dawn and the rising sun, the Samurai rushed down the mountain with swords drawn and were shot by the government conscripts. When the fighting was over, the Imperials tried to give the wounded Samurai medical aid, but they defiantly took their own lives and not a single one was taken alive. The feudal warrior class that had ruled Japan for centuries went out in a blaze and faded into history being defeated by foreign-made modern weaponry wielded by lower-class soldiers they despised. \n\n\nIn a tearful ceremony one decade later, Emperor Meiji would pardon Saigō of all wrongdoing during the rebellion, allowing his former mentor to become a celebrated and admired figure of Japanese history. Future generations of the Japanese military class would continue to embrace Samauri ideology. \n\n\n[Online References]\n\n\n(http://www.historynet.com/satsuma-rebellion-satsuma-clan-samurai-against-the-imperial-japanese-army.htm/5 )\n\n\n(https://www.thoughtco.com/satsuma-rebellion-battle-of-shiroyama-2360838 )\n\n\n(https://www.mhistory.net/the-battle-of-shiroyama-and-the-fall-of-the-samurai/ )\n\n\nSaigo Takamori:\n(https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/09-10/saigo-takamori-the-last-samurai/ )\n\n\n(https://www.thoughtco.com/figures-and-events-in-asian-history-s2-3896549 )\n\n\nThe Meiji Restoration:\n(http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm )\n\n\n[Book Reference]\n\n\nAugustus Henry Mounsey was a British diplomat. His firsthand account of the Satsuma Rebellion published in 1879 gives the most detailed descriptions of the military campaigns of the rebellion. \n\n\nThe Satsuma Rebellion, an Episode of Modern Japanese History:\n(https://archive.org/details/satsumarebellio01moungoog )\n\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n\n#onthisday\n#onthisdayinhistory\n#history",
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"content": "Napoleon at the storming of the Tuileries Palace <br />231 years ago this week in 1792, a young Napoleon Bonaparte watches French revolutionaries storm the Tuileries Palace and massacre King Louis XVI’s Swiss Guard mercenaries.<br /><br />The French Revolution had been ongoing for almost 3 years and was about to hit a defining point. The Paris Commune grew tired of the King’s reluctance and mismanagement of implementing revolutionary demands. On August 10th, 20,000 insurgents marched on his palace.<br /><br />The palace was a formidable position to defend. It was garrisoned by 950 veteran Swiss mercenaries of the Gardes Suisse, and ~3000 National Guard & royalists. This garrison should have been more than enough to handle a civilian mob, but the garrison was ill prepared, and ammunition was woefully low. The Mayor of Paris and other public officials elected by the revolutionaries would convince the King to abandon the palace and avoid bloodshed. With his departure he took with him most of the garrison and ordered the Swiss Guard to retire into the interior of the palace. The few National Guard troops defending the courtyard would then turn to the insurgent’s cause, letting them enter the palace.<br /><br />At this scene was a young 23-year-old Napoleon Bonaparte. The young officer began his career with the French military in 1785. By 1792 he was a Captain in the French army and joined the insurgent mob to merely spectate the historical events of the evening. <br /><br />Leaders from the insurgent mob ascended the grand staircase and called on the Swiss Guard to disarm and surrender.<br /><br />\"Surrender to the Nation!\" they shouted to the Swiss.<br /><br />\"We should think ourselves dishonored!” shouted back the Swiss commander.<br />”We are Swiss, the Swiss do not part with their arms, but with their lives. <br />We do not merit such an insult!<br />If the regiment is no longer wanted, let it be legally discharged. <br />But we will not leave our post, nor will we let our arms be taken from us.\"<br /><br />The Swiss then moved into positions along the windows of the château and behind a barricade on the staircase as the two bodies confronted each other with insults for a period of time. It is unclear which side shot first, but the Swiss, firing from above, quickly cleaned out and disbursed the insurgents. In response, the mob brought cannons into the courtyard, but the Swiss sallied out with a counterattack and seized them.<br /><br />Napoleon was awestruck at the military prowess of the Swiss. ~900 professional soldiers in their bright red uniforms going on the offensive against thousands of attackers. He gawked at their coordinated fire and bayonet formations. How they captured the mob’s cannons and turned them against their foes. It was the finest soldiery Napoleon had seen at that point and the Swiss were only forced back into the palace when the National Guard troops helped the insurgents. He moved towards the palace to witness a brief ceasefire that was called to deliver the Swiss an order from the King to standdown. <br /><br />The success of the Swiss enraged the mob into a bloodlust and acting on this order meant almost certain death for the Swiss defenders. The future emperor watched these professional soldiers do their duty and obey a disastrous order. The Swiss fell back throughout the palace and were organized into smaller groups by the insurgents. The mob stabbed and beat more than half of the helpless soldiers to death. Of ~900 Swiss, only three hundred survived and most of these would die of their wounds in prison or during the September Massacres next month.<br /><br />The gruesome scene disgusted Napoleon and terrified him of civilian crowds for the rest of his life. How could such fine soldiery be betrayed by a cowardly monarch? How could any nation survive such a breakdown of order? How long was this going to last? Louis was officially arrested 3 days later and sent to Paris. On 21 September, the National Assembly abolished the monarchy and declared a Republic. Louis would be placed on trial and executed in January.<br /><br />Napoleon was soon occupied with military campaigns against foreign incursions into France. His military successes over the next decade would propel his rise to one of the most famous military commanders in human history. And he would use his military fame to take power away from liberal revolutionaries holding his nation hostage. Becoming the First Consul of the French Republic 1799-1804. And after defeating an alliance of nations formed to stop him, in 1804 Napoleon would be crowned Emperor of The French.<br /><br />[Online References]<br /><br />(<a href=\"http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/319/\" target=\"_blank\">http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/319/</a> )<br /><br />(<a href=\"https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/attack-on-the-tuileries/\" target=\"_blank\">https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/attack-on-the-tuileries/</a> )<br /><br />(<a href=\"http://www.thisdayinworldhistory.com/august-10-1792-ce-the-french-monarchy-is-arrested-as-federe-militias-storm-the-tuileries-palace/\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.thisdayinworldhistory.com/august-10-1792-ce-the-french-monarchy-is-arrested-as-federe-militias-storm-the-tuileries-palace/</a> )<br /><br />Artwork by Maurice Réalier-Dumas (1888)<br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br /><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=OTD\" title=\"#OTD\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#OTD</a> <a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=Onthisday\" title=\"#Onthisday\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#Onthisday</a> <a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=history\" title=\"#history\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#history</a>",
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"content": "Napoleon at the storming of the Tuileries Palace \n231 years ago this week in 1792, a young Napoleon Bonaparte watches French revolutionaries storm the Tuileries Palace and massacre King Louis XVI’s Swiss Guard mercenaries.\n\nThe French Revolution had been ongoing for almost 3 years and was about to hit a defining point. The Paris Commune grew tired of the King’s reluctance and mismanagement of implementing revolutionary demands. On August 10th, 20,000 insurgents marched on his palace.\n\nThe palace was a formidable position to defend. It was garrisoned by 950 veteran Swiss mercenaries of the Gardes Suisse, and ~3000 National Guard & royalists. This garrison should have been more than enough to handle a civilian mob, but the garrison was ill prepared, and ammunition was woefully low. The Mayor of Paris and other public officials elected by the revolutionaries would convince the King to abandon the palace and avoid bloodshed. With his departure he took with him most of the garrison and ordered the Swiss Guard to retire into the interior of the palace. The few National Guard troops defending the courtyard would then turn to the insurgent’s cause, letting them enter the palace.\n\nAt this scene was a young 23-year-old Napoleon Bonaparte. The young officer began his career with the French military in 1785. By 1792 he was a Captain in the French army and joined the insurgent mob to merely spectate the historical events of the evening. \n\nLeaders from the insurgent mob ascended the grand staircase and called on the Swiss Guard to disarm and surrender.\n\n\"Surrender to the Nation!\" they shouted to the Swiss.\n\n\"We should think ourselves dishonored!” shouted back the Swiss commander.\n”We are Swiss, the Swiss do not part with their arms, but with their lives. \nWe do not merit such an insult!\nIf the regiment is no longer wanted, let it be legally discharged. \nBut we will not leave our post, nor will we let our arms be taken from us.\"\n\nThe Swiss then moved into positions along the windows of the château and behind a barricade on the staircase as the two bodies confronted each other with insults for a period of time. It is unclear which side shot first, but the Swiss, firing from above, quickly cleaned out and disbursed the insurgents. In response, the mob brought cannons into the courtyard, but the Swiss sallied out with a counterattack and seized them.\n\nNapoleon was awestruck at the military prowess of the Swiss. ~900 professional soldiers in their bright red uniforms going on the offensive against thousands of attackers. He gawked at their coordinated fire and bayonet formations. How they captured the mob’s cannons and turned them against their foes. It was the finest soldiery Napoleon had seen at that point and the Swiss were only forced back into the palace when the National Guard troops helped the insurgents. He moved towards the palace to witness a brief ceasefire that was called to deliver the Swiss an order from the King to standdown. \n\nThe success of the Swiss enraged the mob into a bloodlust and acting on this order meant almost certain death for the Swiss defenders. The future emperor watched these professional soldiers do their duty and obey a disastrous order. The Swiss fell back throughout the palace and were organized into smaller groups by the insurgents. The mob stabbed and beat more than half of the helpless soldiers to death. Of ~900 Swiss, only three hundred survived and most of these would die of their wounds in prison or during the September Massacres next month.\n\nThe gruesome scene disgusted Napoleon and terrified him of civilian crowds for the rest of his life. How could such fine soldiery be betrayed by a cowardly monarch? How could any nation survive such a breakdown of order? How long was this going to last? Louis was officially arrested 3 days later and sent to Paris. On 21 September, the National Assembly abolished the monarchy and declared a Republic. Louis would be placed on trial and executed in January.\n\nNapoleon was soon occupied with military campaigns against foreign incursions into France. His military successes over the next decade would propel his rise to one of the most famous military commanders in human history. And he would use his military fame to take power away from liberal revolutionaries holding his nation hostage. Becoming the First Consul of the French Republic 1799-1804. And after defeating an alliance of nations formed to stop him, in 1804 Napoleon would be crowned Emperor of The French.\n\n[Online References]\n\n(http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/319/ )\n\n(https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/attack-on-the-tuileries/ )\n\n(http://www.thisdayinworldhistory.com/august-10-1792-ce-the-french-monarchy-is-arrested-as-federe-militias-storm-the-tuileries-palace/ )\n\nArtwork by Maurice Réalier-Dumas (1888)\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n\n#OTD #Onthisday #history",
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"content": "King Theodoric at Catalaunian Plains 451AD<br />1572 years ago today in 451, King Theodoric and his riders defeat Atilla The Hun in the Battle of Catalaunian Plains. <br /> <br />Nearly 75 years before this in 376 AD, hundreds of thousands of Visigoths and Ostrogoths sought refuge from the Huns within the Eastern Roman Empire. But they were not peaceful, raiding and sacking the Balkans, Gaul, and Italy. The Goths managed to kill the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens and destroy his legions. His successor Theodosius I was able to make a deal with the Goths in 382, but not from a position of strength. A Roman civil war broke out in 392 and Theodosius’s victory would make him the last emperor to briefly rule the entire Roman Empire. But his death in 394 brought the permanent division of Eastern and Western Roman Empire until 547 AD. The Huns would continue to invade and be offered generous peace treaties from the Romans throughout the next few decades. The Huns also ransacked and conquered all the German provinces that Rome had struggled with for centuries. <br /> <br />Atilla the Hun was at the head of a large horde from the Great Hungarian Plain, and his invasion began in 440 AD crossing the Danube River. The Roman Empire was unable to deal with the crisis as they were in the middle of a war with the Vandals in Carthage. And the Huns use of siege weapons and superiorly mounted troops would capture cities in a quick succession never seen before. Atilla was only stopped by the complex fortifications around Constantinople, famously known as the Theodosian Walls, which would continue to protect the city for another 1000 years. Atilla left the city in 447 AD accepting tribune payments. He would invade Rome again in 451 AD after tribune payments stopped.<br /> <br />Flavius Aetius was a Roman general born in 390 AD. He spent his childhood amongst the Huns as a hostage and would use his influence with them to defeat the Eastern Roman Empire in a civil war. For this Aetius was given a prominent military position in the Western Roman Empire. And he began his career as one of the last great military leaders in Western Roman history with numerous campaigns against barbarians across the provinces. Aetius was merciful to many of the barbarians he defeated because he was aware that the greatest threat to Rome and all of Europe was the Huns. One of the famous benefactors of his mercy was the Visigoth King Theodoric I. <br /> <br />Theodoric was also born in 390 AD, a son of Visigoth King Alaric I who infamously sacked the city of Rome in 410 AD. Theodoric became king in 418 AD and a few years later invaded Italy. He was defeated by the Romans and was mercifully ordered to migrate his people into Gaul. There the Goths had their own independent kingdom, with the condition that if the time came. They would answer Rome’s call to war against their common enemy the Huns.<br /> <br />The call from Rome came in the spring of 451AD when King Theodoric was old in age. Atilla began his invasion from Germany into Gaul. It was uncertain if Theodoric and his riders would answer Rome’s call for aid. Going to war for such tribal people came at great risk. The warriors riding into almost certain death wasn’t just the end of their lives. But it also implicated the ruin of their families who would be left defenseless in the aftermath. It could become the world’s end for their people. But Theodoric personally answered the call, and his mounted warriors were critical in balancing the upcoming fight. <br /> <br />Atilla was halted sieging the city of Orleans in early June. Aetius was enroute with his army of Romans, Franks, and Goths. Both sides are estimated to have fielded 40,000-50,000 soldiers each. The battle began with Atilla sending his mounted archers to the Roman infantry who took the main brunt of the attack. Theodoric and his riders were positioned on the Roman’s right. It was here that Theodoric rode across the front of his men giving them a rousing speech. He then personally led a charge into the Huns where his horse was killed, and his body trampled. Laying on the battlefield with a broken body, a Hun came up to the king and killed him with a spear. <br /> <br />The King’s heir, Thorismund came upon the scene and was notified of the news. Many men in his position would have found an excuse to abandon danger and survive the failing battle. But Thorismund was taken with rage when he saw the king’s body. He reformed the Visigoth cavalry and led another charge in a critical moment of the battle. Atilla’s forces retreated, and his “aura of invincibility” shattered for the rest of his life. <br /> <br />The Western Roman Empire would still come to an end 25 years later in 476 AD. <br /> <br /><br />[Online Refrences]<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Catalaunian-Plains\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Catalaunian-Plains</a> )<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://www.worldhistory.org/article/995/the-battle-of-the-catalaunian-fields/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.worldhistory.org/article/995/the-battle-of-the-catalaunian-fields/</a> )<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-battle-of-chalons-attilas-stinging-defeat/\" target=\"_blank\">https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-battle-of-chalons-attilas-stinging-defeat/</a> )<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-chalons-attila-the-hun-versus-flavius-aetius/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-chalons-attila-the-hun-versus-flavius-aetius/</a> )<br /> <br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br /> <br />Artwork by Osprey Publishing<br /> <br />",
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"content": "King Theodoric at Catalaunian Plains 451AD\n1572 years ago today in 451, King Theodoric and his riders defeat Atilla The Hun in the Battle of Catalaunian Plains. \n \nNearly 75 years before this in 376 AD, hundreds of thousands of Visigoths and Ostrogoths sought refuge from the Huns within the Eastern Roman Empire. But they were not peaceful, raiding and sacking the Balkans, Gaul, and Italy. The Goths managed to kill the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens and destroy his legions. His successor Theodosius I was able to make a deal with the Goths in 382, but not from a position of strength. A Roman civil war broke out in 392 and Theodosius’s victory would make him the last emperor to briefly rule the entire Roman Empire. But his death in 394 brought the permanent division of Eastern and Western Roman Empire until 547 AD. The Huns would continue to invade and be offered generous peace treaties from the Romans throughout the next few decades. The Huns also ransacked and conquered all the German provinces that Rome had struggled with for centuries. \n \nAtilla the Hun was at the head of a large horde from the Great Hungarian Plain, and his invasion began in 440 AD crossing the Danube River. The Roman Empire was unable to deal with the crisis as they were in the middle of a war with the Vandals in Carthage. And the Huns use of siege weapons and superiorly mounted troops would capture cities in a quick succession never seen before. Atilla was only stopped by the complex fortifications around Constantinople, famously known as the Theodosian Walls, which would continue to protect the city for another 1000 years. Atilla left the city in 447 AD accepting tribune payments. He would invade Rome again in 451 AD after tribune payments stopped.\n \nFlavius Aetius was a Roman general born in 390 AD. He spent his childhood amongst the Huns as a hostage and would use his influence with them to defeat the Eastern Roman Empire in a civil war. For this Aetius was given a prominent military position in the Western Roman Empire. And he began his career as one of the last great military leaders in Western Roman history with numerous campaigns against barbarians across the provinces. Aetius was merciful to many of the barbarians he defeated because he was aware that the greatest threat to Rome and all of Europe was the Huns. One of the famous benefactors of his mercy was the Visigoth King Theodoric I. \n \nTheodoric was also born in 390 AD, a son of Visigoth King Alaric I who infamously sacked the city of Rome in 410 AD. Theodoric became king in 418 AD and a few years later invaded Italy. He was defeated by the Romans and was mercifully ordered to migrate his people into Gaul. There the Goths had their own independent kingdom, with the condition that if the time came. They would answer Rome’s call to war against their common enemy the Huns.\n \nThe call from Rome came in the spring of 451AD when King Theodoric was old in age. Atilla began his invasion from Germany into Gaul. It was uncertain if Theodoric and his riders would answer Rome’s call for aid. Going to war for such tribal people came at great risk. The warriors riding into almost certain death wasn’t just the end of their lives. But it also implicated the ruin of their families who would be left defenseless in the aftermath. It could become the world’s end for their people. But Theodoric personally answered the call, and his mounted warriors were critical in balancing the upcoming fight. \n \nAtilla was halted sieging the city of Orleans in early June. Aetius was enroute with his army of Romans, Franks, and Goths. Both sides are estimated to have fielded 40,000-50,000 soldiers each. The battle began with Atilla sending his mounted archers to the Roman infantry who took the main brunt of the attack. Theodoric and his riders were positioned on the Roman’s right. It was here that Theodoric rode across the front of his men giving them a rousing speech. He then personally led a charge into the Huns where his horse was killed, and his body trampled. Laying on the battlefield with a broken body, a Hun came up to the king and killed him with a spear. \n \nThe King’s heir, Thorismund came upon the scene and was notified of the news. Many men in his position would have found an excuse to abandon danger and survive the failing battle. But Thorismund was taken with rage when he saw the king’s body. He reformed the Visigoth cavalry and led another charge in a critical moment of the battle. Atilla’s forces retreated, and his “aura of invincibility” shattered for the rest of his life. \n \nThe Western Roman Empire would still come to an end 25 years later in 476 AD. \n \n\n[Online Refrences]\n \n(https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Catalaunian-Plains )\n \n(https://www.worldhistory.org/article/995/the-battle-of-the-catalaunian-fields/ )\n \n(https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-battle-of-chalons-attilas-stinging-defeat/ )\n \n(https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-chalons-attila-the-hun-versus-flavius-aetius/ )\n \nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n \nArtwork by Osprey Publishing\n \n",
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"content": "The Departure of Boromir and heir of Gondor<br />On this day in TA 3019, the Fellowship of The One Ring is broken, and Boromir of Gondor is slain.<br /><br /><br />Gondor was one of two successor kingdoms to a race of seafaring men escaping the destruction of their western homeland Númenor. Gondor’s northern sister kingdom, Arnor, was divided and slowly ripped apart throughout the centuries. The last king from this fallen kingdom became the chieftain of nomadic rangers who continued to survive for centuries while their race declined. And the evil that destroyed Arnor began to besiege Gondor. <br /><br /><br />Boromir was the oldest son and heir of the current ruler of Gondor, Denethor II. Nearly 1000 years before Boromir’s time, Gondor’s last king foolishly answered a summon for a duel to never be heard from again. With no direct heirs or descendants, Gondor’s throne was empty, and power was passed to the Stewards who ruled for 26 generations. Many of Gondor’s beautiful cities were ruined, and most of the population took refuge in a great city that was a multi-tiered fortress, Minas Tirith. <br /><br /><br />After participating in a costly battle that held off the enemy’s invasion. Boromir had vivid dreams and made a journey north to get counseling from the Elves and inform them of the invasion. He arrived in time to participate in the Council of Elrond. Also at this council was Aragorn, chieftain of the legendary northern rangers. The council was summoned to address The One Ring, an ancient artifact created by Middle Earth’s mortal enemy, Sauron. A fellowship of 9 members was formed to protect and guide the ringbearer, a hobbit named Frodo. During the journey the fellowship’s beloved wizard & leader Gandalf had fallen. Aragorn would lead the fellowship to the aid of the Elves, where they would provide them with supplies and boats to continue their journey. <br /><br /><br />Throughout their perilous travels Boromir was first skeptical of and observed Aragorn. But the ranger reminded him of his younger brother Faramir. He was also a natural captain of men during combat that inspired Boromir to perform better. And when Boromir learned that Aragorn was more than twice his age at 87, there was no denying he had strong blood from their Númenórean ancestors who had a longer lifespan. <br /><br /><br />The fellowship traveled south by boat and paused when they came across a waterfall. A decision had to be made if they were to go on a more clandestine path with the ring or go to Boromir’s city Minas Tirith and get reinforcements. Frodo wondered off on his own to think about the decision. Boromir followed him to make sure he was safe. He saw on Frodo's face that his burden was heavy. The original desire to counsel the small lad became lost in a debate. He pleaded with Frodo that Gondor needed and could protect the power of the One Ring. But Frodo reminded Boromir that it needed to be destroyed instead. And at this moment the sorcery of the One Ring gripped Boromir.<br /><br /><br />The most powerful artifact in the known world was in possession of what looked like a mere child. A child who joyfully lived his entire life in peace while Boromir’s people are confined to citadels. A child that Boromir had risked his life defending. Boromir went mad, assaulting Frodo and trying to take the ring. Frodo used the ring to escape.Boromir tripped chasing Frodo and hit his head. The pain allowed Boromir to gather his senses and he began crying. <br /><br /><br />“What have I said?” “What have I done?” “Frodo come back!”<br /><br /><br />He returned to the fellowship to report of Frodo’s departure, but not the full reason. The fellowship scattered to go look for him and Aragorn ordered Boromir to watch after two other hobbits in the fellowship, Merry and Pippin. While searching for Frodo, the small hobbits watched in horror as dozens of orcs ran towards their position. <br /><br /><br />When suddenly the loud blast from a horn paused time for a brief moment. And when that moment was over, Boromir was among the orcs, and they began to fall all around him. <br /><br /><br />With sword in one hand, and horn in the other. Another blast pierced the air as Boromir guided the little ones to safety. The fear that had frozen Merry and Pippin moments ago, was melted with each parry and crash from Boromir’s sword. The horrible cries made by the orcs as Boromir cut them inspired the little ones to fight back with stones and stab any trying to grab them. They were no longer afraid, and Aragorn drew his sword and rushed to the horn of Gondor. <br /><br /><br />But the icey fear was suddenly back as Merry and Pippin watched the first arrow strike Boromir. Every arrow that pierced Boromir was as if it landed in plate armor. For his next slashes and stabs went uninterrupted, until his sword finally broke near the hilt. And his horn shattered in a desperate block. Filled with arrows and a broken sword, he continued to fight. For he was still young, and still prince. And the orcs approaching him even began to hesitate, until he collapsed against a tree. Avoiding his reach, they quickly grabbed the hobbits and fled. <br /><br /><br />Aragorn was rushing towards the sound of the fight but could no longer hear it. He arrived at the now somber scene. He found Boromir sitting against a tree and ran to comfort him. <br />Boromir’s famed strength now struggled to speak. The first statement from this fallen warrior was one he could have kept to himself and not need to give at all. He confessed his failure and sin.<br /><br /><br />“I..tried..to..take..the..ring..from Frodo..I am sorry….i have paid”<br /><br /><br />And Boromir’s final statement was monumental for their declining race. Aragorn was once just a stranger to him. A stranger who’s heritage he doubted. A heritage that would destroy the power of Boromir’s own family. But nonetheless it was a glorious heritage for their people that he could no longer deny. <br /><br /><br />“Farewell Aragorn…Go to Minas Tirith..save my people…I have failed. “<br /><br /><br />Without hesitation Aragorn embraced and reaffirmed him.<br /><br /><br />“No you have conquered! Few have gained such a victory. Be at peace, Minas Tirith shall not fall!” <br /><br /><br />Boromir’s last earthly action was to smile at the future king’s words. <br /><br /><br />Aragorn couldn’t control his grief and was overcome with doubt. He preferred a more clandestine route with the One Ring which was now gone. And Boromir’s request weighed heavy on him. Aragorn was humble about his heritage throughout most of his life. He assumed he wouldn’t be any different than his father and grandfathers. They didn’t seek a supposed throne in distant southern lands that belonged to them. A kingdom who’s people wouldn’t even know him or want him to rule. <br /><br />But now the most renowned Lord of this kingdom died in his arms, asking for his help. Aragorn’s heart was filled with desire to no longer avoid his destiny. A rightful heir to the throne of Gondor would return at the request of Boromir, for his people.<br /><br /><br />Artwork by Andy Fairhurst & Ted Nasmith<br /><br /><br />[References]<br /><br />The Fellowship Of The Ring, The Two Towers,<br />and The Return of the King. <br />By J. R. R. Tolkien<br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br />",
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"content": "The Departure of Boromir and heir of Gondor\nOn this day in TA 3019, the Fellowship of The One Ring is broken, and Boromir of Gondor is slain.\n\n\nGondor was one of two successor kingdoms to a race of seafaring men escaping the destruction of their western homeland Númenor. Gondor’s northern sister kingdom, Arnor, was divided and slowly ripped apart throughout the centuries. The last king from this fallen kingdom became the chieftain of nomadic rangers who continued to survive for centuries while their race declined. And the evil that destroyed Arnor began to besiege Gondor. \n\n\nBoromir was the oldest son and heir of the current ruler of Gondor, Denethor II. Nearly 1000 years before Boromir’s time, Gondor’s last king foolishly answered a summon for a duel to never be heard from again. With no direct heirs or descendants, Gondor’s throne was empty, and power was passed to the Stewards who ruled for 26 generations. Many of Gondor’s beautiful cities were ruined, and most of the population took refuge in a great city that was a multi-tiered fortress, Minas Tirith. \n\n\nAfter participating in a costly battle that held off the enemy’s invasion. Boromir had vivid dreams and made a journey north to get counseling from the Elves and inform them of the invasion. He arrived in time to participate in the Council of Elrond. Also at this council was Aragorn, chieftain of the legendary northern rangers. The council was summoned to address The One Ring, an ancient artifact created by Middle Earth’s mortal enemy, Sauron. A fellowship of 9 members was formed to protect and guide the ringbearer, a hobbit named Frodo. During the journey the fellowship’s beloved wizard & leader Gandalf had fallen. Aragorn would lead the fellowship to the aid of the Elves, where they would provide them with supplies and boats to continue their journey. \n\n\nThroughout their perilous travels Boromir was first skeptical of and observed Aragorn. But the ranger reminded him of his younger brother Faramir. He was also a natural captain of men during combat that inspired Boromir to perform better. And when Boromir learned that Aragorn was more than twice his age at 87, there was no denying he had strong blood from their Númenórean ancestors who had a longer lifespan. \n\n\nThe fellowship traveled south by boat and paused when they came across a waterfall. A decision had to be made if they were to go on a more clandestine path with the ring or go to Boromir’s city Minas Tirith and get reinforcements. Frodo wondered off on his own to think about the decision. Boromir followed him to make sure he was safe. He saw on Frodo's face that his burden was heavy. The original desire to counsel the small lad became lost in a debate. He pleaded with Frodo that Gondor needed and could protect the power of the One Ring. But Frodo reminded Boromir that it needed to be destroyed instead. And at this moment the sorcery of the One Ring gripped Boromir.\n\n\nThe most powerful artifact in the known world was in possession of what looked like a mere child. A child who joyfully lived his entire life in peace while Boromir’s people are confined to citadels. A child that Boromir had risked his life defending. Boromir went mad, assaulting Frodo and trying to take the ring. Frodo used the ring to escape.Boromir tripped chasing Frodo and hit his head. The pain allowed Boromir to gather his senses and he began crying. \n\n\n“What have I said?” “What have I done?” “Frodo come back!”\n\n\nHe returned to the fellowship to report of Frodo’s departure, but not the full reason. The fellowship scattered to go look for him and Aragorn ordered Boromir to watch after two other hobbits in the fellowship, Merry and Pippin. While searching for Frodo, the small hobbits watched in horror as dozens of orcs ran towards their position. \n\n\nWhen suddenly the loud blast from a horn paused time for a brief moment. And when that moment was over, Boromir was among the orcs, and they began to fall all around him. \n\n\nWith sword in one hand, and horn in the other. Another blast pierced the air as Boromir guided the little ones to safety. The fear that had frozen Merry and Pippin moments ago, was melted with each parry and crash from Boromir’s sword. The horrible cries made by the orcs as Boromir cut them inspired the little ones to fight back with stones and stab any trying to grab them. They were no longer afraid, and Aragorn drew his sword and rushed to the horn of Gondor. \n\n\nBut the icey fear was suddenly back as Merry and Pippin watched the first arrow strike Boromir. Every arrow that pierced Boromir was as if it landed in plate armor. For his next slashes and stabs went uninterrupted, until his sword finally broke near the hilt. And his horn shattered in a desperate block. Filled with arrows and a broken sword, he continued to fight. For he was still young, and still prince. And the orcs approaching him even began to hesitate, until he collapsed against a tree. Avoiding his reach, they quickly grabbed the hobbits and fled. \n\n\nAragorn was rushing towards the sound of the fight but could no longer hear it. He arrived at the now somber scene. He found Boromir sitting against a tree and ran to comfort him. \nBoromir’s famed strength now struggled to speak. The first statement from this fallen warrior was one he could have kept to himself and not need to give at all. He confessed his failure and sin.\n\n\n“I..tried..to..take..the..ring..from Frodo..I am sorry….i have paid”\n\n\nAnd Boromir’s final statement was monumental for their declining race. Aragorn was once just a stranger to him. A stranger who’s heritage he doubted. A heritage that would destroy the power of Boromir’s own family. But nonetheless it was a glorious heritage for their people that he could no longer deny. \n\n\n“Farewell Aragorn…Go to Minas Tirith..save my people…I have failed. “\n\n\nWithout hesitation Aragorn embraced and reaffirmed him.\n\n\n“No you have conquered! Few have gained such a victory. Be at peace, Minas Tirith shall not fall!” \n\n\nBoromir’s last earthly action was to smile at the future king’s words. \n\n\nAragorn couldn’t control his grief and was overcome with doubt. He preferred a more clandestine route with the One Ring which was now gone. And Boromir’s request weighed heavy on him. Aragorn was humble about his heritage throughout most of his life. He assumed he wouldn’t be any different than his father and grandfathers. They didn’t seek a supposed throne in distant southern lands that belonged to them. A kingdom who’s people wouldn’t even know him or want him to rule. \n\nBut now the most renowned Lord of this kingdom died in his arms, asking for his help. Aragorn’s heart was filled with desire to no longer avoid his destiny. A rightful heir to the throne of Gondor would return at the request of Boromir, for his people.\n\n\nArtwork by Andy Fairhurst & Ted Nasmith\n\n\n[References]\n\nThe Fellowship Of The Ring, The Two Towers,\nand The Return of the King. \nBy J. R. R. Tolkien\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n",
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"content": "Strasbourg Massacre 1349<br />674 years ago today in 1349, the city of Strasbourg massacres its Jewish population during the Black Death Plague.<br /><br />The 14th century was an eventful time. Trade routes were being established across three continents. Christians and Ottomans were still fighting across the Mediterranean. And the Mongols sieged Italian colonies on the Crimean Peninsula. And in 1346, the very religious people of the day were experiencing a pandemic that was rapidly depopulating cities across Europe. The plague induced a great fear and hysteria against outsiders who might be spreading it. <br /><br />The Jewish populations of Europe during the Middle Ages were also in a peculiar situation. Christian doctrine forbade Christian’s lending money to each other with interest. This allowed Jews to fit into the role competitively, becoming moneylenders for centuries. With this profession, Jews could be granted special benefits for being the creditors of monarchs and nobility. But they also could feel the wrath of the monarch and the general population as taxes could be raised to pay for debts owed to them. One of the most impactful political treaties of the Middle Ages, The Magna Carta, had 2 specific clauses that addressed Jewish moneylending. <br /><br />The Jewish populations were also competitive merchants involved in the complex guild systems that dominated European trade. The average European peasant had little in common with moneylending and guild systems, and prejudice built for centuries. Adding more to this boiling pot, some Christian interpretation taught that the Old Testament god now belongs to them. And that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus Christ! As the Black Death began to spread across Europe in the 1347, it would catalyze something very ugly that had been lying dormant. In early 1348, several cities in Switzerland interrogated Jews under torture to get confessions of a well-poisoning plot across Europe to spread the plague. Despite Pope Clement VI issuing two papal bulls denouncing the conspiracy and violence, hundreds of Jewish communities along the Rhine River were massacred as the news spread over the months. <br /><br />The ruler of Strasbourg, King Charles IV, ceded the city more rights to deal with its finance in 1347. And the Jewish merchants would directly pay taxes to the city-council and guild masters. The Jewish population of Strasbourg was well embedded within the economy of the city and continued to pay for protection against the angry populace as well-poisoning accusations flared. For weeks the mayor of the city, Peter Swarber demanded evidence of Jews spreading the plague and ensured the Jewish quarter of the city was well guarded. Which further inflamed the populace. Finally on February 9th, the artisan guilds revolted and overthrew their leaders, implementing a new regime that would not honor the city’s former agreement with the Jewish population. <br /><br />As the political leadership of the city was realigning, an angry mob began construction of a large house for the Jewish population’s execution. On February 14th, Jews were ordered and dragged from their homes into the streets. They were marched from their quarter to this large wooden structure that was eventually set on fire. Any who tried to escape the inferno were stabbed and beaten to death. Throughout the evening of the ghastly scene, hysterical townsfolk would dance and celebrate the clearing of their debts and seizure of Jewish property. Some members of the mob would grab young children and women from the condemned to save them.<br /><br />From the city of Cologne, all the way down the Rhine River into Austria, most Jewish populations were destroyed. The Jewish word “Holocaust” is not only defined by the event that happened during World War 2. But used to describe other events of their persecution throughout history. <br /><br /><br />[Online References]<br />(<a href=\"https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2841&context=facpub\" target=\"_blank\">https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2841&context=facpub</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.timesofisrael.com/the-magna-cartas-very-jewish-underpinnings/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.timesofisrael.com/the-magna-cartas-very-jewish-underpinnings/</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-black-death\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-black-death</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/This-Week-in-History-The-Jews-of-Basel-are-burnt\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/This-Week-in-History-The-Jews-of-Basel-are-burnt</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://dragiffhistory.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/6/3/126335822/the_black_death_and_the_jews.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https://dragiffhistory.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/6/3/126335822/the_black_death_and_the_jews.pdf</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-1349-a-valentine-s-day-massacre-1.5229805\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-1349-a-valentine-s-day-massacre-1.5229805</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.aish.com/jw/s/Horrific-Valentines-Day-Massacre-of-Jews.html\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.aish.com/jw/s/Horrific-Valentines-Day-Massacre-of-Jews.html</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://prezi.com/ta1ue2uxcugk/strasbourg-massacre/\" target=\"_blank\">https://prezi.com/ta1ue2uxcugk/strasbourg-massacre/</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/story/what-is-the-origin-of-the-term-holocaust\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.britannica.com/story/what-is-the-origin-of-the-term-holocaust</a>)<br /><br />[Audiobook Reference]<br />The Great Mortality <br />An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time<br />By: John Kelly<br />(<a href=\"https://amzn.to/3xjATOH\" target=\"_blank\">https://amzn.to/3xjATOH</a> )<br /><br />Artwork: Pogrom of Strasbourg by Emile Schweitzer<br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br /><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=valentinesday\" title=\"#valentinesday\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#valentinesday</a> <a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=onthisday\" title=\"#onthisday\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#onthisday</a><br /><a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=otd\" title=\"#otd\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#otd</a> <a href=\"https://www.minds.com/search?f=top&t=all&q=history\" title=\"#history\" class=\"u-url hashtag\" target=\"_blank\">#history</a>",
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"content": "Strasbourg Massacre 1349\n674 years ago today in 1349, the city of Strasbourg massacres its Jewish population during the Black Death Plague.\n\nThe 14th century was an eventful time. Trade routes were being established across three continents. Christians and Ottomans were still fighting across the Mediterranean. And the Mongols sieged Italian colonies on the Crimean Peninsula. And in 1346, the very religious people of the day were experiencing a pandemic that was rapidly depopulating cities across Europe. The plague induced a great fear and hysteria against outsiders who might be spreading it. \n\nThe Jewish populations of Europe during the Middle Ages were also in a peculiar situation. Christian doctrine forbade Christian’s lending money to each other with interest. This allowed Jews to fit into the role competitively, becoming moneylenders for centuries. With this profession, Jews could be granted special benefits for being the creditors of monarchs and nobility. But they also could feel the wrath of the monarch and the general population as taxes could be raised to pay for debts owed to them. One of the most impactful political treaties of the Middle Ages, The Magna Carta, had 2 specific clauses that addressed Jewish moneylending. \n\nThe Jewish populations were also competitive merchants involved in the complex guild systems that dominated European trade. The average European peasant had little in common with moneylending and guild systems, and prejudice built for centuries. Adding more to this boiling pot, some Christian interpretation taught that the Old Testament god now belongs to them. And that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus Christ! As the Black Death began to spread across Europe in the 1347, it would catalyze something very ugly that had been lying dormant. In early 1348, several cities in Switzerland interrogated Jews under torture to get confessions of a well-poisoning plot across Europe to spread the plague. Despite Pope Clement VI issuing two papal bulls denouncing the conspiracy and violence, hundreds of Jewish communities along the Rhine River were massacred as the news spread over the months. \n\nThe ruler of Strasbourg, King Charles IV, ceded the city more rights to deal with its finance in 1347. And the Jewish merchants would directly pay taxes to the city-council and guild masters. The Jewish population of Strasbourg was well embedded within the economy of the city and continued to pay for protection against the angry populace as well-poisoning accusations flared. For weeks the mayor of the city, Peter Swarber demanded evidence of Jews spreading the plague and ensured the Jewish quarter of the city was well guarded. Which further inflamed the populace. Finally on February 9th, the artisan guilds revolted and overthrew their leaders, implementing a new regime that would not honor the city’s former agreement with the Jewish population. \n\nAs the political leadership of the city was realigning, an angry mob began construction of a large house for the Jewish population’s execution. On February 14th, Jews were ordered and dragged from their homes into the streets. They were marched from their quarter to this large wooden structure that was eventually set on fire. Any who tried to escape the inferno were stabbed and beaten to death. Throughout the evening of the ghastly scene, hysterical townsfolk would dance and celebrate the clearing of their debts and seizure of Jewish property. Some members of the mob would grab young children and women from the condemned to save them.\n\nFrom the city of Cologne, all the way down the Rhine River into Austria, most Jewish populations were destroyed. The Jewish word “Holocaust” is not only defined by the event that happened during World War 2. But used to describe other events of their persecution throughout history. \n\n\n[Online References]\n(https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2841&context=facpub )\n(https://www.timesofisrael.com/the-magna-cartas-very-jewish-underpinnings/ )\n(https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-black-death )\n(https://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/This-Week-in-History-The-Jews-of-Basel-are-burnt )\n(https://dragiffhistory.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/6/3/126335822/the_black_death_and_the_jews.pdf )\n(https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-1349-a-valentine-s-day-massacre-1.5229805 )\n(https://www.aish.com/jw/s/Horrific-Valentines-Day-Massacre-of-Jews.html )\n(https://prezi.com/ta1ue2uxcugk/strasbourg-massacre/ )\n(https://www.britannica.com/story/what-is-the-origin-of-the-term-holocaust)\n\n[Audiobook Reference]\nThe Great Mortality \nAn Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time\nBy: John Kelly\n(https://amzn.to/3xjATOH )\n\nArtwork: Pogrom of Strasbourg by Emile Schweitzer\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n\n#valentinesday #onthisday\n#otd #history",
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"content": "Robert E Lee's Birthday<br />216 years ago today in 1807, one of the most successful generals to ever fight the United States Military, Robert E Lee, is born in Stratford Hall, Virginia. <br /><br />Lee’s family was in Virginia since the 1600’s. His father was revolutionary war hero Major General Henry Lee who served under George Washington and as governor of Virginia after the war. Robert Lee married the step-great-granddaughter of George Washington. Lee never owned slaves until he inherited them from the death of his father-in-law. And in accordance of his father-in-law’s will, he freed all of these slaves in late 1862 during the middle of the war he was fighting.<br /><br />Robert Lee assumed command of Confederate forces in Virginia in the summer of 1862 during the Peninsula Campaign. He reformed and renamed his fighting force, “The Army of Northern Virginia.” Despite being outnumbered and out supplied, Lee took the initiative away from the Union Army of The Potomac during the Seven Day Battles, forcing them to retreat across the Potomac River. Shortly after this, Lee maneuvered his army to repel another invasion led by John Pope at the old Manassas battlefield in the Second Battle of Manassas (called Bull Run by the North). <br /><br />After two substantial victories, Lee decided to invade the Union to take the pressure off of his home state Virginia. His plans would be discovered, and The Army of The Potomac deployed almost 90,000 men against his 40,000 soldiers at the town of Sharpsburg, Maryland. The Battle of Antietam would be the single bloodiest day in American history, Lee’s men would hold the town after three waves of attacks and then escape the next day back into Virginia. Frustrated with the outcome of the war, Abraham Lincoln appointed another top Union general, Ambrose Burnside, and sent him after Lee. <br /><br />Lee’s men waited in a strong defensive position near the town of Fredericksburg, Virginia and inflicted heavy casualties on Burnside forcing him to retreat and deploy into a winter camp. As winter came to an end, in May 1863 Lincoln appointed another commander, Joseph Hooker, to once again take the fight to Lee and invade Virginia. Lee would split his army of 60,000 men and attack Hooker’s force of over 120,000 near the town of Chancellorsville. In what would become his most celebrated victory in military history, Lee had beaten back a 4th Union Commander. Abraham Lincoln was in disbelief when he received the news, he is reported to have shouted \"My God! My God! What will the country say?\"<br /><br />While each of Lee’s victories inched the South closer to independence, the odds were still against them in 1863. Union victories in Tennessee brought them further south and the Federal Government began to seal their hegemony of the Mississippi River by placing the town of Vicksburg under siege. Confederate President Jefferson Davis wanted Lee to go relieve the siege, but Lee proposed another idea. Like he did in 1862, he would invade the Union and bring the war to the enemy. His army would sustain itself off capturing towns and cities in Pennsylvania, and would inch closer to Washington D.C. The South put their hope in Lee’s army, and assumed he was close to bringing the Federal Government to peace talks. <br /><br />In June 1863, the Army of Northern Virginia moved through Maryland and entered into Pennsylvania. Lee’s army would be deprived of his best cavalry led by General JEB Stuart who was preforming a raid instead of screening and providing reconnaissance. However, Lee finally received information from spies that his usual nemesis, the Army of The Potomac was moving into Pennsylvania to counter his invasion. A rebel infantry brigade noticed Union cavalry around the town of Gettysburg and decided to mount a reconnaissance in force the next morning on July 1st. About 80 miles north of Washington D.C., and with the Independence holiday of July 4th around the corner, this could be the decisive battle of the war. <br /><br />On the first day of fighting, keeping up with their momentum the rebels broke through two Federal corps, pushing them south of the town. The Federals would take defensive positions on formidable high-ground. On the 2nd day, the confident and outnumbered rebels attacked the Federal positions for several hours until nightfall but were unable to break them. On the 3rd day, Lee assembled every cannon he could find to launch the largest bombardment of the war at that point. He then ordered a 12,000 man frontal assault on the Union center and a 5,000 man cavalry attack on their right flank. But none of it would break the Army of the Potomac. Despite Lee’s gamble and failure, he managed to escape with his defeated army back into Virginia and prolong the war for the next 21 months.<br /><br />1864 was an election year for Abraham Lincoln. His opponent was outspoken general George McClellan, who was very critical of the war and possibly open into starting peace talks. The Confederate capital Richmond, 100 miles from Washington D.C., defiantly avoided occupation for years. With the upcoming election in November, Lincoln appointed a new Federal commander to try and capture the rebel capital. Ulysses S Grant earned his new position for his successful handling of the Western Theater of the war in Tennessee and Mississippi. He would now be the 6th commanding general in the Eastern Theater to face Lee. <br /><br />The numbers and supplies would be in Grant’s favor, but Lee had a hardened veteran army defending territory they were familiar with. From the start of May till the end of June 1864, Grant continually moved his army and engaged Lee in multiple battles known as the “Overland Campaign”. Towards the end of the campaign Grant had sustained over 50,000 casualties just from battle. And every day more Federal troops would be dying of disease. U.S. Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs began to turn Lee’s estate Arlington into what eventually would become Arlington National Cemetery. <br /><br />While Lee is responsible for perpetuating the war, the most important reason Lee was admired by both sides is because he was also crucial in ending the deadliest conflict in American history. Against the wishes of his government and passionate generals, Lee chose to surrender his ~20,000 troops rather than drag on the war after the fall of Richmond. Lee wrote to stubborn Confederate president Jefferson Davis: <br /><br /> “…A partisan war may be continued, and hostilities protracted, causing individual suffering and the devastation of the country, but I see no prospect by that means of achieving a separate independence. It is for Your Excellency to decide, should you agree with me in opinion, what is proper to be done. To save useless effusion of blood, I would recommend measures be taken for suspension of hostilities and the restoration of peace.”<br /><br />Throughout the rest of the month, all rebel armies would surrender following Lee’s course. In his memoirs, Ulysses S Grant gives credit to Lee’s respect and influence amongst the rebels to ending the war sooner. Grant’s pardon to Lee’s army was also instrumental in solidifying peace within the nation, as it ensured most rebels could not be punished for their military service during the rebellion. <br /><br />12 years after his death, Lee’s son won a court case against the U.S. government who turned their family estate Arlington into a cemetery. The Supreme Court ordered the thousands of bodies to be reburied elsewhere. Lee’s son refused and sold Arlington back to the U.S. government where five generations of U.S. military veterans have chosen to be buried as the nation’s most honorable resting place. <br /><br /><br /><br /><br />[Online References]<br /><br /><a href=\"https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-arlington-national-cemetery-came-to-be-145147007/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-arlington-national-cemetery-came-to-be-145147007/</a><br /><a href=\"http://www.stratfordhall.org/meet-the-lee-family/\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.stratfordhall.org/meet-the-lee-family/</a><br /><a href=\"https://www.historynet.com/robert-e-lee-slavery.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.historynet.com/robert-e-lee-slavery.htm</a><br /><a href=\"https://americancivilwar.com/authors/Joseph_Ryan/Articles/General-Lee-Slaves/General-Lee-Family-Slaves.html\" target=\"_blank\">https://americancivilwar.com/authors/Joseph_Ryan/Articles/General-Lee-Slaves/General-Lee-Family-Slaves.html</a><br />(<a href=\"http://study.com/academy/lesson/battle-of-gettysburg-facts-summary-significance.html\" target=\"_blank\">http://study.com/academy/lesson/battle-of-gettysburg-facts-summary-significance.html</a>)<br /><br />Lincoln’s Letter to George Meade (July 14, 1863)<br />(<a href=\"http://housedivided.dickinson.edu/sites/lincoln/letter-to-george-meade-july-14-1863/\" target=\"_blank\">http://housedivided.dickinson.edu/sites/lincoln/letter-to-george-meade-july-14-1863/</a> )<br /><br />[Audiobook Reference]<br />Clouds of Glory <br />The Life and Legend of Robert E. Lee <br />By: Michael Korda<br /><br />(<a href=\"https://amzn.to/3XnpDfw\" target=\"_blank\">https://amzn.to/3XnpDfw</a> )<br /><br />Artwork: “Serious Work Ahead” by Dale Gallon (1991)<br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy <br /><br /><br />",
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"content": "Robert E Lee's Birthday\n216 years ago today in 1807, one of the most successful generals to ever fight the United States Military, Robert E Lee, is born in Stratford Hall, Virginia. \n\nLee’s family was in Virginia since the 1600’s. His father was revolutionary war hero Major General Henry Lee who served under George Washington and as governor of Virginia after the war. Robert Lee married the step-great-granddaughter of George Washington. Lee never owned slaves until he inherited them from the death of his father-in-law. And in accordance of his father-in-law’s will, he freed all of these slaves in late 1862 during the middle of the war he was fighting.\n\nRobert Lee assumed command of Confederate forces in Virginia in the summer of 1862 during the Peninsula Campaign. He reformed and renamed his fighting force, “The Army of Northern Virginia.” Despite being outnumbered and out supplied, Lee took the initiative away from the Union Army of The Potomac during the Seven Day Battles, forcing them to retreat across the Potomac River. Shortly after this, Lee maneuvered his army to repel another invasion led by John Pope at the old Manassas battlefield in the Second Battle of Manassas (called Bull Run by the North). \n\nAfter two substantial victories, Lee decided to invade the Union to take the pressure off of his home state Virginia. His plans would be discovered, and The Army of The Potomac deployed almost 90,000 men against his 40,000 soldiers at the town of Sharpsburg, Maryland. The Battle of Antietam would be the single bloodiest day in American history, Lee’s men would hold the town after three waves of attacks and then escape the next day back into Virginia. Frustrated with the outcome of the war, Abraham Lincoln appointed another top Union general, Ambrose Burnside, and sent him after Lee. \n\nLee’s men waited in a strong defensive position near the town of Fredericksburg, Virginia and inflicted heavy casualties on Burnside forcing him to retreat and deploy into a winter camp. As winter came to an end, in May 1863 Lincoln appointed another commander, Joseph Hooker, to once again take the fight to Lee and invade Virginia. Lee would split his army of 60,000 men and attack Hooker’s force of over 120,000 near the town of Chancellorsville. In what would become his most celebrated victory in military history, Lee had beaten back a 4th Union Commander. Abraham Lincoln was in disbelief when he received the news, he is reported to have shouted \"My God! My God! What will the country say?\"\n\nWhile each of Lee’s victories inched the South closer to independence, the odds were still against them in 1863. Union victories in Tennessee brought them further south and the Federal Government began to seal their hegemony of the Mississippi River by placing the town of Vicksburg under siege. Confederate President Jefferson Davis wanted Lee to go relieve the siege, but Lee proposed another idea. Like he did in 1862, he would invade the Union and bring the war to the enemy. His army would sustain itself off capturing towns and cities in Pennsylvania, and would inch closer to Washington D.C. The South put their hope in Lee’s army, and assumed he was close to bringing the Federal Government to peace talks. \n\nIn June 1863, the Army of Northern Virginia moved through Maryland and entered into Pennsylvania. Lee’s army would be deprived of his best cavalry led by General JEB Stuart who was preforming a raid instead of screening and providing reconnaissance. However, Lee finally received information from spies that his usual nemesis, the Army of The Potomac was moving into Pennsylvania to counter his invasion. A rebel infantry brigade noticed Union cavalry around the town of Gettysburg and decided to mount a reconnaissance in force the next morning on July 1st. About 80 miles north of Washington D.C., and with the Independence holiday of July 4th around the corner, this could be the decisive battle of the war. \n\nOn the first day of fighting, keeping up with their momentum the rebels broke through two Federal corps, pushing them south of the town. The Federals would take defensive positions on formidable high-ground. On the 2nd day, the confident and outnumbered rebels attacked the Federal positions for several hours until nightfall but were unable to break them. On the 3rd day, Lee assembled every cannon he could find to launch the largest bombardment of the war at that point. He then ordered a 12,000 man frontal assault on the Union center and a 5,000 man cavalry attack on their right flank. But none of it would break the Army of the Potomac. Despite Lee’s gamble and failure, he managed to escape with his defeated army back into Virginia and prolong the war for the next 21 months.\n\n1864 was an election year for Abraham Lincoln. His opponent was outspoken general George McClellan, who was very critical of the war and possibly open into starting peace talks. The Confederate capital Richmond, 100 miles from Washington D.C., defiantly avoided occupation for years. With the upcoming election in November, Lincoln appointed a new Federal commander to try and capture the rebel capital. Ulysses S Grant earned his new position for his successful handling of the Western Theater of the war in Tennessee and Mississippi. He would now be the 6th commanding general in the Eastern Theater to face Lee. \n\nThe numbers and supplies would be in Grant’s favor, but Lee had a hardened veteran army defending territory they were familiar with. From the start of May till the end of June 1864, Grant continually moved his army and engaged Lee in multiple battles known as the “Overland Campaign”. Towards the end of the campaign Grant had sustained over 50,000 casualties just from battle. And every day more Federal troops would be dying of disease. U.S. Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs began to turn Lee’s estate Arlington into what eventually would become Arlington National Cemetery. \n\nWhile Lee is responsible for perpetuating the war, the most important reason Lee was admired by both sides is because he was also crucial in ending the deadliest conflict in American history. Against the wishes of his government and passionate generals, Lee chose to surrender his ~20,000 troops rather than drag on the war after the fall of Richmond. Lee wrote to stubborn Confederate president Jefferson Davis: \n\n “…A partisan war may be continued, and hostilities protracted, causing individual suffering and the devastation of the country, but I see no prospect by that means of achieving a separate independence. It is for Your Excellency to decide, should you agree with me in opinion, what is proper to be done. To save useless effusion of blood, I would recommend measures be taken for suspension of hostilities and the restoration of peace.”\n\nThroughout the rest of the month, all rebel armies would surrender following Lee’s course. In his memoirs, Ulysses S Grant gives credit to Lee’s respect and influence amongst the rebels to ending the war sooner. Grant’s pardon to Lee’s army was also instrumental in solidifying peace within the nation, as it ensured most rebels could not be punished for their military service during the rebellion. \n\n12 years after his death, Lee’s son won a court case against the U.S. government who turned their family estate Arlington into a cemetery. The Supreme Court ordered the thousands of bodies to be reburied elsewhere. Lee’s son refused and sold Arlington back to the U.S. government where five generations of U.S. military veterans have chosen to be buried as the nation’s most honorable resting place. \n\n\n\n\n[Online References]\n\nhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-arlington-national-cemetery-came-to-be-145147007/\nhttp://www.stratfordhall.org/meet-the-lee-family/\nhttps://www.historynet.com/robert-e-lee-slavery.htm\nhttps://americancivilwar.com/authors/Joseph_Ryan/Articles/General-Lee-Slaves/General-Lee-Family-Slaves.html\n(http://study.com/academy/lesson/battle-of-gettysburg-facts-summary-significance.html)\n\nLincoln’s Letter to George Meade (July 14, 1863)\n(http://housedivided.dickinson.edu/sites/lincoln/letter-to-george-meade-july-14-1863/ )\n\n[Audiobook Reference]\nClouds of Glory \nThe Life and Legend of Robert E. Lee \nBy: Michael Korda\n\n(https://amzn.to/3XnpDfw )\n\nArtwork: “Serious Work Ahead” by Dale Gallon (1991)\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy \n\n\n",
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"content": "Freikorps crushes German Revolution of 1919<br />104 years ago today in 1919, German WWI veterans put down a communist uprising in the city of Berlin. <br /><br />Towards the conclusion of World War One, Germany was in turmoil. Hoping to take advantage of this tragic situation, labor and liberal political parties started a revolution attempting to take control of the country. German sailors were instrumental in the early stages of the 1918 November Revolution. Two days before Armistice Day, German Emperor Wilhelm II fled the country and abdicated his throne. The first elections for the new Constituent German National Assembly were to be held on January 19th 1919, however street violence rocked the capital of Berlin and other major German cities.<br /><br />On December 24th, 1918 rightwing army soldiers and leftwing sailors of the navy fought around the city palace in Berlin, leading to dozens of the deaths. Shortly after this, the Police chief of Berlin was sacked and on January 4th, the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg felt there was no better time to take their labor revolution a step further. The first Soviet republic was declared last year in Russia, and the second one more recently being announced in Hungary. Karl and Rosa felt that the third should pop up in Germany, and impulsively announced a communist revolution in Berlin that did not have major support of other leftwing labor parties/groups within the new national government.<br /><br />In fact the new German government that was eagerly awaiting the elections planned on January 19th, and gave approval for militia-type Freikorps units to start assembling around Berlin. The Freikorps, meaning “Free Corps” were essentially a militia force that had existed since the Napoleonic Wars. These units were volunteers who didn’t fight for money or gold. They were often made up of patriotic students and veterans still armed with their military equipment from WW1. Many of the Freikorps felt they were not defeated in the Great War, and they despised the situation that had happened within Germany. As they mobilized around Berlin, they were given the order to put down the rebellion and eagerly entered the city. Taking it back street by street in hard fighting. When they found the leaders of the uprising, they beat them horribly and executed them. <br /><br />While Berlin was saved, the Freikorps units went to southern Germany in the state of Bavaria. In Bavaria the 3rd Soviet republic in Europe was formally announced. Freikorps units also brutally squashed this communist revolution and mobilized around the instability on the eastern front. Towards the end of 1919, Germany eventually held a constitutional convention rejecting communism and creating the Weimar Republic. Freikorps units would continue to fight in the Baltic states against Soviet forces over the next year.<br /><br /><br />[Online References]<br />(<a href=\"http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/spartacist-uprising-berlin\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/spartacist-uprising-berlin</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"http://weimarandnazigermany.co.uk/1919-spartacist-uprising/\" target=\"_blank\">http://weimarandnazigermany.co.uk/1919-spartacist-uprising/</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.marxists.org/subject/germany-1918-23/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.marxists.org/subject/germany-1918-23/</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.bundestag.de/blob/189772/8b9e17bd8d64e64c8e3a95fc2305e132/november_revolution-data.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.bundestag.de/blob/189772/8b9e17bd8d64e64c8e3a95fc2305e132/november_revolution-data.pdf</a> )<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br />",
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"content": "Freikorps crushes German Revolution of 1919\n104 years ago today in 1919, German WWI veterans put down a communist uprising in the city of Berlin. \n\nTowards the conclusion of World War One, Germany was in turmoil. Hoping to take advantage of this tragic situation, labor and liberal political parties started a revolution attempting to take control of the country. German sailors were instrumental in the early stages of the 1918 November Revolution. Two days before Armistice Day, German Emperor Wilhelm II fled the country and abdicated his throne. The first elections for the new Constituent German National Assembly were to be held on January 19th 1919, however street violence rocked the capital of Berlin and other major German cities.\n\nOn December 24th, 1918 rightwing army soldiers and leftwing sailors of the navy fought around the city palace in Berlin, leading to dozens of the deaths. Shortly after this, the Police chief of Berlin was sacked and on January 4th, the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg felt there was no better time to take their labor revolution a step further. The first Soviet republic was declared last year in Russia, and the second one more recently being announced in Hungary. Karl and Rosa felt that the third should pop up in Germany, and impulsively announced a communist revolution in Berlin that did not have major support of other leftwing labor parties/groups within the new national government.\n\nIn fact the new German government that was eagerly awaiting the elections planned on January 19th, and gave approval for militia-type Freikorps units to start assembling around Berlin. The Freikorps, meaning “Free Corps” were essentially a militia force that had existed since the Napoleonic Wars. These units were volunteers who didn’t fight for money or gold. They were often made up of patriotic students and veterans still armed with their military equipment from WW1. Many of the Freikorps felt they were not defeated in the Great War, and they despised the situation that had happened within Germany. As they mobilized around Berlin, they were given the order to put down the rebellion and eagerly entered the city. Taking it back street by street in hard fighting. When they found the leaders of the uprising, they beat them horribly and executed them. \n\nWhile Berlin was saved, the Freikorps units went to southern Germany in the state of Bavaria. In Bavaria the 3rd Soviet republic in Europe was formally announced. Freikorps units also brutally squashed this communist revolution and mobilized around the instability on the eastern front. Towards the end of 1919, Germany eventually held a constitutional convention rejecting communism and creating the Weimar Republic. Freikorps units would continue to fight in the Baltic states against Soviet forces over the next year.\n\n\n[Online References]\n(http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/spartacist-uprising-berlin )\n\n\n(http://weimarandnazigermany.co.uk/1919-spartacist-uprising/ )\n\n\n(https://www.marxists.org/subject/germany-1918-23/ )\n\n\n(https://www.bundestag.de/blob/189772/8b9e17bd8d64e64c8e3a95fc2305e132/november_revolution-data.pdf )\n\n\n\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n",
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"content": "181 years ago today in 1842, the survivors of a retreating British column, mostly belonging to the 44th Regiment of Foot, make their last stand against in Afghanistan. <br /><br />The conflict arose from the British intervening in a secession dispute between Afghan kings. While initially successful, the British leadership made one of their worst blunders in their military history. The British generals were convinced by the Afghans to evacuate their formidable position in the city of Kabul under the promise of safe passing and giving supplies. Starting January 6th, a column of 4,500 troops (700 Europeans and 3800 Indians) with 12,000 civilians began an 82 mile march through harsh winter conditions to reach a British garrison in the city of Jalalabad. Friendly Afghan tribesmen betrayed and stalled the column from moving effectively. Sniping began on the 2nd day of the perilous journey. The tribesmen would also trick many of the column into surrendering, only to murder them shortly after.<br /><br />Thousands of people in the retreating column perished over the course of a week. The British soldiers leading it were exhausted, constantly having to fight off ambushes and keep the column moving to avoid being surrounded. Many of them were wounded and had no time to rest over several days of running and fighting. In some horrible instances, the Afghan tribesmen would have their women and children finish off the wounded. Throughout the perilous journey, many British soldiers committed suicide to escape the nightmare they found themselves in. <br /><br />On January 11th there was about 200 British soldiers left, and their last two Generals were tricked into accepting a meeting in which they were captured. After this, discipline had broken amongst the British and many died trying to save themselves. There were now around 60 men left and The 44th Regiment of Foot was the last cohesive unit remaining. These men had stuck together over the course of the week and passionately looked out for each other. They were determined to make it out alive. On the late night of January 12th they decided to grab the few working muskets and make a run for it before the Afghans made their next move. <br /><br />This last group of around 60 British soldiers with only 20 working muskets fought their way to a hill outside the village of Gandamak. The Afghan’s told the remaining British they would spare their lives if they surrendered, in which the British defiantly replied “NOT BLOODLY LIKELY!”<br /><br />The Afghans would taunt and snipe the British decreasing their numbers every minute. The last officer of the group picked up the regiment’s flag and wrapped it around his chest for one final rally. Every remaining soldier was wounded. And those who were strong enough dragged their seriously wounded comrades with them. The men said their goodbyes amongst each other, and all went back-to-back to face the oncoming enemy and brace for the end. <br /><br />The Tribesmen rushed the British who fought back screaming in desperate melee combat. But they were overwhelmed and massacred. Intrigued by the regimental flag wrapped around his chest, the officer and very few soldiers around him were taken alive. The event quickly became considered one of the worst disasters in British military history. Only one European managed to make it back to friendly territory, Dr. William Brydon, who was mounted on a horse. The British launched a successful punitive campaign the following year against Afghanistan. <br /><br />[Online References]<br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/battle-of-kabul-and-the-retreat-to-gandamak/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/battle-of-kabul-and-the-retreat-to-gandamak/</a> )<br /><br />(<a href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/09/opinion/09dalrymple.html\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/09/opinion/09dalrymple.html</a> )<br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2013/01/26/lessons-unlearned\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2013/01/26/lessons-unlearned</a> )<br /><br />An account of the battle from one of the only survivors assistant surgeon Dr. William Brydon:<br />(<a href=\"http://www.khyber.org/publications/011-015/brydonreport.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.khyber.org/publications/011-015/brydonreport.shtml</a> )<br /><br />Artwork: Painting : The Last Stand of the 44th Regiment at Gundamuck, 1842 by William Barnes Wollen<br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br /><br />",
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"content": "181 years ago today in 1842, the survivors of a retreating British column, mostly belonging to the 44th Regiment of Foot, make their last stand against in Afghanistan. \n\nThe conflict arose from the British intervening in a secession dispute between Afghan kings. While initially successful, the British leadership made one of their worst blunders in their military history. The British generals were convinced by the Afghans to evacuate their formidable position in the city of Kabul under the promise of safe passing and giving supplies. Starting January 6th, a column of 4,500 troops (700 Europeans and 3800 Indians) with 12,000 civilians began an 82 mile march through harsh winter conditions to reach a British garrison in the city of Jalalabad. Friendly Afghan tribesmen betrayed and stalled the column from moving effectively. Sniping began on the 2nd day of the perilous journey. The tribesmen would also trick many of the column into surrendering, only to murder them shortly after.\n\nThousands of people in the retreating column perished over the course of a week. The British soldiers leading it were exhausted, constantly having to fight off ambushes and keep the column moving to avoid being surrounded. Many of them were wounded and had no time to rest over several days of running and fighting. In some horrible instances, the Afghan tribesmen would have their women and children finish off the wounded. Throughout the perilous journey, many British soldiers committed suicide to escape the nightmare they found themselves in. \n\nOn January 11th there was about 200 British soldiers left, and their last two Generals were tricked into accepting a meeting in which they were captured. After this, discipline had broken amongst the British and many died trying to save themselves. There were now around 60 men left and The 44th Regiment of Foot was the last cohesive unit remaining. These men had stuck together over the course of the week and passionately looked out for each other. They were determined to make it out alive. On the late night of January 12th they decided to grab the few working muskets and make a run for it before the Afghans made their next move. \n\nThis last group of around 60 British soldiers with only 20 working muskets fought their way to a hill outside the village of Gandamak. The Afghan’s told the remaining British they would spare their lives if they surrendered, in which the British defiantly replied “NOT BLOODLY LIKELY!”\n\nThe Afghans would taunt and snipe the British decreasing their numbers every minute. The last officer of the group picked up the regiment’s flag and wrapped it around his chest for one final rally. Every remaining soldier was wounded. And those who were strong enough dragged their seriously wounded comrades with them. The men said their goodbyes amongst each other, and all went back-to-back to face the oncoming enemy and brace for the end. \n\nThe Tribesmen rushed the British who fought back screaming in desperate melee combat. But they were overwhelmed and massacred. Intrigued by the regimental flag wrapped around his chest, the officer and very few soldiers around him were taken alive. The event quickly became considered one of the worst disasters in British military history. Only one European managed to make it back to friendly territory, Dr. William Brydon, who was mounted on a horse. The British launched a successful punitive campaign the following year against Afghanistan. \n\n[Online References]\n\n(https://www.britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/battle-of-kabul-and-the-retreat-to-gandamak/ )\n\n(http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/09/opinion/09dalrymple.html )\n\n(https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2013/01/26/lessons-unlearned )\n\nAn account of the battle from one of the only survivors assistant surgeon Dr. William Brydon:\n(http://www.khyber.org/publications/011-015/brydonreport.shtml )\n\nArtwork: Painting : The Last Stand of the 44th Regiment at Gundamuck, 1842 by William Barnes Wollen\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n\n",
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"content": "Constantine XI Coronation <br />571 years ago today in 1449, Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos is the last person to officially be given the title of Roman Emperor. He would be killed 4 years later in the fall of Constantinople. <br /><br />Constantinople was considered a jewel and bastion of Christendom. It served as the capital of the Byzantium Empire, which was the successor to the ancient Roman Empire. The city had withstood many sieges over the centuries and its fortifications were considered some of the best and most complex in the ancient and medieval worlds. However, 200 years before this siege, Crusaders managed to capture and sack the city which severely setback Byzantine civilization.<br /><br />Over the course of 50 years, the Ottomans would place the city under siege 3 times. On the third time in 1453, they brought over 80,000 men and more than 100 ships to face the defender’s roughly 8,000 soldiers and ~30 ships. Unlike the previous sieges, the Ottomans also brought with them heavy cannons to bring down the fortifications.<br /><br />The defenders led by Italian mercenary Giovanni Giustiniani heroically held out for 53 days, strategically holding certain walls and towers with their few thousand soldiers. The Ottoman bombardment of the city was the most intense artillery fire the world had seen at that point. The massive defensives around the city were destroyed piecemeal. But the civilians and soldiers worked every night to repair the famous fortifications, ultimately leading to a stalemate along the land walls.<br /><br />The Romans also held the famous Golden Horn harbor with a massive chain across it. About 3 weeks into the siege, four Italians ships approached the city and were determined to break the blockade. As they sailed towards the massive Roman chain in the harbor, the Ottoman fleet moved to intercept them. The European ships were much taller and acted like wooden castles on the water. The Ottoman sailors were shot and cut down by the dozens. The four ships fought off the fleet and arrived in the city, providing a massive morale boost to the garrison. If the Christian sailors managed to keep the Ottoman fleet out of the harbor, it was still possible for more ships and a larger naval relief force to arrive. <br /><br />Leading the Ottomans was the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II. The young Sultan refused to consider peace terms so early in the siege and plotted one of the most logistical military operations of the era. He had his solders carry the ships overland along a path they greased up and then slid the ships into the harbor. With the Ottoman fleet now in the harbor, an entire new front along the sea wall was opened, stretching the defenses even thinner. <br /><br />As the siege continued in its 5th and 6th week, Mehmed grew inpatient. There was also rumor of a Venetian fleet being prepared to relieve the city. Mehmed first tempted Giovanni with a massive bribe to leave the city, a bribe Giovanni refused. He then offered peace terms to Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI, sparing the lives of the defenders and civilians if they simply left the city. Emperor Constantine had many opportunities to flee the city and govern in exile. He also could have lived a comfortable life as a vassal king if he accepted the Sultan’s offer. Constantine refused to surrender the ancient city and took his role as the last Roman Emperor very seriously. The entire city would engage in religious ceremonies as the Ottomans prepared for a final assault.<br /><br />Starting at midnight on May 29th, an intense bombardment of the city began as the Ottomans moved into position. Giovanni and Constantine were at the front fighting and encouraging the defenders. For hours the defenders used crossbows, guns, and cannons against the incoming attack. They beat back and cut down waves of attackers in hard melee fighting. After two failed attacks, the Sultan sent in his elite Janissaries. During this final wave, Giovanni was seriously wounded and evacuated, collapsing the morale of the defenders. The Ottomans eventually overran a postern gate and thousands of them breached the city.<br /><br />The fate of Emperor Constantine XI is not certain and the last known sighting of him is being surrounded by his loyal nobles and bodyguard. What is certain though is that Constantine had many offers to be able to escape the city and he refused. Constantine and his men died trying to the keep the Turks out of the city, and his body was never recovered. <br /><br />Several ships were able to run the blockade and escape as the Turks sacked the city. An estimated 30,000-50,000 inhabitants of the city were enslaved or murdered. Constantinople remained the capital of the Ottoman Empire for another 469 years until it collapsed after World War One. In 1930, the Republic of Turkey officially changed the name of the city to Istanbul. <br /><br />[Online References]<br />(<a href=\"http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/eng/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos\" target=\"_blank\">http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/eng/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Constantine-XI-Palaeologus\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Constantine-XI-Palaeologus</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.ancient.eu/article/1180/1453-the-fall-of-constantinople/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ancient.eu/article/1180/1453-the-fall-of-constantinople/</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/fall-constantinople.html\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/fall-constantinople.html</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Constantinople-1453\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Constantinople-1453</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/constantinople\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/constantinople</a> )<br /><br />[Audiobook Reference)<br />1453:<br />The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West<br />By Roger Crowley<br />(<a href=\"https://www.audible.com/pd/History/1453-Audiobook/B01JB4JTUM\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.audible.com/pd/History/1453-Audiobook/B01JB4JTUM</a> )<br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br />",
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"content": "Constantine XI Coronation \n571 years ago today in 1449, Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos is the last person to officially be given the title of Roman Emperor. He would be killed 4 years later in the fall of Constantinople. \n\nConstantinople was considered a jewel and bastion of Christendom. It served as the capital of the Byzantium Empire, which was the successor to the ancient Roman Empire. The city had withstood many sieges over the centuries and its fortifications were considered some of the best and most complex in the ancient and medieval worlds. However, 200 years before this siege, Crusaders managed to capture and sack the city which severely setback Byzantine civilization.\n\nOver the course of 50 years, the Ottomans would place the city under siege 3 times. On the third time in 1453, they brought over 80,000 men and more than 100 ships to face the defender’s roughly 8,000 soldiers and ~30 ships. Unlike the previous sieges, the Ottomans also brought with them heavy cannons to bring down the fortifications.\n\nThe defenders led by Italian mercenary Giovanni Giustiniani heroically held out for 53 days, strategically holding certain walls and towers with their few thousand soldiers. The Ottoman bombardment of the city was the most intense artillery fire the world had seen at that point. The massive defensives around the city were destroyed piecemeal. But the civilians and soldiers worked every night to repair the famous fortifications, ultimately leading to a stalemate along the land walls.\n\nThe Romans also held the famous Golden Horn harbor with a massive chain across it. About 3 weeks into the siege, four Italians ships approached the city and were determined to break the blockade. As they sailed towards the massive Roman chain in the harbor, the Ottoman fleet moved to intercept them. The European ships were much taller and acted like wooden castles on the water. The Ottoman sailors were shot and cut down by the dozens. The four ships fought off the fleet and arrived in the city, providing a massive morale boost to the garrison. If the Christian sailors managed to keep the Ottoman fleet out of the harbor, it was still possible for more ships and a larger naval relief force to arrive. \n\nLeading the Ottomans was the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II. The young Sultan refused to consider peace terms so early in the siege and plotted one of the most logistical military operations of the era. He had his solders carry the ships overland along a path they greased up and then slid the ships into the harbor. With the Ottoman fleet now in the harbor, an entire new front along the sea wall was opened, stretching the defenses even thinner. \n\nAs the siege continued in its 5th and 6th week, Mehmed grew inpatient. There was also rumor of a Venetian fleet being prepared to relieve the city. Mehmed first tempted Giovanni with a massive bribe to leave the city, a bribe Giovanni refused. He then offered peace terms to Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI, sparing the lives of the defenders and civilians if they simply left the city. Emperor Constantine had many opportunities to flee the city and govern in exile. He also could have lived a comfortable life as a vassal king if he accepted the Sultan’s offer. Constantine refused to surrender the ancient city and took his role as the last Roman Emperor very seriously. The entire city would engage in religious ceremonies as the Ottomans prepared for a final assault.\n\nStarting at midnight on May 29th, an intense bombardment of the city began as the Ottomans moved into position. Giovanni and Constantine were at the front fighting and encouraging the defenders. For hours the defenders used crossbows, guns, and cannons against the incoming attack. They beat back and cut down waves of attackers in hard melee fighting. After two failed attacks, the Sultan sent in his elite Janissaries. During this final wave, Giovanni was seriously wounded and evacuated, collapsing the morale of the defenders. The Ottomans eventually overran a postern gate and thousands of them breached the city.\n\nThe fate of Emperor Constantine XI is not certain and the last known sighting of him is being surrounded by his loyal nobles and bodyguard. What is certain though is that Constantine had many offers to be able to escape the city and he refused. Constantine and his men died trying to the keep the Turks out of the city, and his body was never recovered. \n\nSeveral ships were able to run the blockade and escape as the Turks sacked the city. An estimated 30,000-50,000 inhabitants of the city were enslaved or murdered. Constantinople remained the capital of the Ottoman Empire for another 469 years until it collapsed after World War One. In 1930, the Republic of Turkey officially changed the name of the city to Istanbul. \n\n[Online References]\n(http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/eng/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos )\n(https://www.britannica.com/biography/Constantine-XI-Palaeologus )\n(https://www.ancient.eu/article/1180/1453-the-fall-of-constantinople/ )\n(https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/fall-constantinople.html )\n(https://www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Constantinople-1453 )\n(https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/constantinople )\n\n[Audiobook Reference)\n1453:\nThe Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West\nBy Roger Crowley\n(https://www.audible.com/pd/History/1453-Audiobook/B01JB4JTUM )\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n",
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"content": "Wounded Knee Massacre<br />132 years ago yesterday in 1890, the U.S. 7th Cavalry opens fire on Lakota Indians at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota, killing hundreds of women and children.<br /><br />As the 19th century was coming to a close, so was Native Americans not confined to reservations. During this time period a new religious movement amongst Native Americans known as “The Ghost Dance” was spreading across the continent. This Ghost Dance encouraged Native Americans to embrace their heritage and resist the expansion of Europeans. The Lakota tribes became emboldened by this religious revival combined with the U.S. government violating treaties to expand their presence in South Dakota. One week earlier on December 15th, the great Lakota leader Sitting Bull was shot and killed by Indian Service agents attempting to seize him and prevent him from participating in the Ghost Dance revival.<br /><br />Concerned with the escalating situation in South Dakota, a Lakota chief named Spotted Elk fled with 120 warriors who were accompanied by their women and children. Spotted Elk and many of the natives became ill in the harsh winter conditions. And on December 28, when they were intercepted by a small battalion of the U.S. 7th Cavalry, they peacefully surrendered and were escorted to make a campsite near the Wounded Knee Creek. That evening Colonel James W. Forsyth and the remaining 7th Cavalry arrived at Wounded Knee and surrounded the camp with 500 soldiers and 4 pieces of artillery.<br /><br />Early on the morning of December 29th, the 7th Cavalry entered the camp to confiscate firearms from the Natives. As the process continued, tensions escalated and a medicine man with the Lakota began the Ghost Dance. Sometime after this, a gunshot was accidently discharged during the confiscation process and the massacre began. U.S. soldiers in the camp and surrounding it quickly opened fire indiscriminately on all the Natives seen.<br /><br />A few of the Lakota men desperately fought for their confiscated weapons and fired off a few shots, some of them still had hidden rifles to fight with. But the Natives could barely put up a fight as U.S. cannons devastated the encampment with explosive shrapnel that even hit their own troopers. The shooting barely lasted an hour, and hundreds of Lakota laid dead. Some of the US Troops in a bloodlust finished off wounded Indians and went to hunt down those who managed to escape. Around 50 Lakota were taken alive while the 7th cavalry lost 25 men killed and 39 wounded. The U.S. government awarded 20 Medals of Honor to soldiers who participated in the incident. A blizzard that lasted 3 days prevented the bodies from being buried, and many of the Lakota dead were thrown in a mass grave.<br /><br />More than 80 years after the massacre in 1973, Wounded Knee was the site of the Wounded Knee incident, a 71-day armed standoff between militants of the American Indian Movement and Federal law enforcement officials.<br /><br />[Online References]<br />(<a href=\"http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.war.056\" target=\"_blank\">http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.war.056</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/wounded-knee\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/wounded-knee</a> )<br />(<a href=\"https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/u-s-army-massacres-indians-at-wounded-knee\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/u-s-army-massacres-indians-at-wounded-knee</a> )<br /><a href=\"https://www.usmarshals.gov/history/wounded-knee/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.usmarshals.gov/history/wounded-knee/</a><br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br /><br /><br />",
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"content": "Wounded Knee Massacre\n132 years ago yesterday in 1890, the U.S. 7th Cavalry opens fire on Lakota Indians at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota, killing hundreds of women and children.\n\nAs the 19th century was coming to a close, so was Native Americans not confined to reservations. During this time period a new religious movement amongst Native Americans known as “The Ghost Dance” was spreading across the continent. This Ghost Dance encouraged Native Americans to embrace their heritage and resist the expansion of Europeans. The Lakota tribes became emboldened by this religious revival combined with the U.S. government violating treaties to expand their presence in South Dakota. One week earlier on December 15th, the great Lakota leader Sitting Bull was shot and killed by Indian Service agents attempting to seize him and prevent him from participating in the Ghost Dance revival.\n\nConcerned with the escalating situation in South Dakota, a Lakota chief named Spotted Elk fled with 120 warriors who were accompanied by their women and children. Spotted Elk and many of the natives became ill in the harsh winter conditions. And on December 28, when they were intercepted by a small battalion of the U.S. 7th Cavalry, they peacefully surrendered and were escorted to make a campsite near the Wounded Knee Creek. That evening Colonel James W. Forsyth and the remaining 7th Cavalry arrived at Wounded Knee and surrounded the camp with 500 soldiers and 4 pieces of artillery.\n\nEarly on the morning of December 29th, the 7th Cavalry entered the camp to confiscate firearms from the Natives. As the process continued, tensions escalated and a medicine man with the Lakota began the Ghost Dance. Sometime after this, a gunshot was accidently discharged during the confiscation process and the massacre began. U.S. soldiers in the camp and surrounding it quickly opened fire indiscriminately on all the Natives seen.\n\nA few of the Lakota men desperately fought for their confiscated weapons and fired off a few shots, some of them still had hidden rifles to fight with. But the Natives could barely put up a fight as U.S. cannons devastated the encampment with explosive shrapnel that even hit their own troopers. The shooting barely lasted an hour, and hundreds of Lakota laid dead. Some of the US Troops in a bloodlust finished off wounded Indians and went to hunt down those who managed to escape. Around 50 Lakota were taken alive while the 7th cavalry lost 25 men killed and 39 wounded. The U.S. government awarded 20 Medals of Honor to soldiers who participated in the incident. A blizzard that lasted 3 days prevented the bodies from being buried, and many of the Lakota dead were thrown in a mass grave.\n\nMore than 80 years after the massacre in 1973, Wounded Knee was the site of the Wounded Knee incident, a 71-day armed standoff between militants of the American Indian Movement and Federal law enforcement officials.\n\n[Online References]\n(http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.war.056 )\n(https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/wounded-knee )\n(https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/u-s-army-massacres-indians-at-wounded-knee )\nhttps://www.usmarshals.gov/history/wounded-knee/\n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n\n\n",
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"content": "Washington Crosses the Delaware<br />246 years ago today in 1776, American rebel George Washington quietly crosses the Delaware River on Christmas night to surprise attack German mercenaries in Trenton, New Jersey. <br /><br />The American Revolution started the previous year when rambunctious colonists from Massachusetts shot at British soldiers and trapped them in the city of Boston. The American Colonies sent delegates to a Congress to address the situation with their mother country and appointed George Washington to lead their united army. He arrived on scene at Boston with his Virginians to help drive them out of the city in March 1776. <br /><br />Successful with his mission, and Congress officially declaring independence in July, Washington decided to move his army into New York to engage the British there. He positioned his army on Long Island and fortified it waiting for the British to attack. The British would take their time and engage Washington’s position almost 2 months later in the largest battle of the entire war. Washington was forced to retreat, and poor supplies with awful winter conditions severely limited the moral of the rebel army. Their commander realized they needed a victory to end the year and bring in the upcoming new year with optimism. <br /><br />In the middle of Christmas night, it started to rain and snow on the Americans in freezing conditions. They quietly loaded up in boats and paddled through ice across the Delaware River. Washington managed to get 2400 men across the river quietly and position them around the town of Trenton to entrap the German garrison there. On the early morning of December 26th, he would personally lead the first assault against the city. As the fighting raged on, Washington stayed in the fray and kept moving his men to outflank the German counterattacks. The Americans would capture 900 Germans and only sustain minimal casualties. The rebels would then go back across the river with their prisoners and fresh supplies into Pennsylvania. Washington would continue to campaign in New Jersey and take the fight to the British over the next few weeks in 1777.<br /><br />[Online References]<br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/crossing-of-the-delaware/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/crossing-of-the-delaware/</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/battle-of-trenton/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/battle-of-trenton/</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.battlefields.org/learn/revolutionary-war/battles/trenton\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.battlefields.org/learn/revolutionary-war/battles/trenton</a> )<br /><br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.amrevmuseum.org/read-the-revolution/history/new-jersey-campaign\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.amrevmuseum.org/read-the-revolution/history/new-jersey-campaign</a> )<br /><br />[Audiobook Reference]<br /><br />Washington <br />A Life <br />By: Ron Chernow<br />(<a href=\"https://www.audible.com/pd/Washington-Audiobook/B0044EMDEO\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.audible.com/pd/Washington-Audiobook/B0044EMDEO</a> )<br /><br />Artwork: Oil painting by George Caleb Bingham <br /><br />Authored by R.E. Foy",
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"content": "Washington Crosses the Delaware\n246 years ago today in 1776, American rebel George Washington quietly crosses the Delaware River on Christmas night to surprise attack German mercenaries in Trenton, New Jersey. \n\nThe American Revolution started the previous year when rambunctious colonists from Massachusetts shot at British soldiers and trapped them in the city of Boston. The American Colonies sent delegates to a Congress to address the situation with their mother country and appointed George Washington to lead their united army. He arrived on scene at Boston with his Virginians to help drive them out of the city in March 1776. \n\nSuccessful with his mission, and Congress officially declaring independence in July, Washington decided to move his army into New York to engage the British there. He positioned his army on Long Island and fortified it waiting for the British to attack. The British would take their time and engage Washington’s position almost 2 months later in the largest battle of the entire war. Washington was forced to retreat, and poor supplies with awful winter conditions severely limited the moral of the rebel army. Their commander realized they needed a victory to end the year and bring in the upcoming new year with optimism. \n\nIn the middle of Christmas night, it started to rain and snow on the Americans in freezing conditions. They quietly loaded up in boats and paddled through ice across the Delaware River. Washington managed to get 2400 men across the river quietly and position them around the town of Trenton to entrap the German garrison there. On the early morning of December 26th, he would personally lead the first assault against the city. As the fighting raged on, Washington stayed in the fray and kept moving his men to outflank the German counterattacks. The Americans would capture 900 Germans and only sustain minimal casualties. The rebels would then go back across the river with their prisoners and fresh supplies into Pennsylvania. Washington would continue to campaign in New Jersey and take the fight to the British over the next few weeks in 1777.\n\n[Online References]\n\n(https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/crossing-of-the-delaware/ )\n\n\n(https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/battle-of-trenton/ )\n\n\n(https://www.battlefields.org/learn/revolutionary-war/battles/trenton )\n\n\n(https://www.amrevmuseum.org/read-the-revolution/history/new-jersey-campaign )\n\n[Audiobook Reference]\n\nWashington \nA Life \nBy: Ron Chernow\n(https://www.audible.com/pd/Washington-Audiobook/B0044EMDEO )\n\nArtwork: Oil painting by George Caleb Bingham \n\nAuthored by R.E. Foy",
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"content": "Battle of Verdun Ends<br />106 years ago today in 1916, one of the longest and deadliest battles in human history, The Battle of Verdun, concludes in France during World War One.<br /><br />As war broke out in 1914 between European powers. The tactics of war generally were stuck in the previous century. The German Empire’s victory against France 40 years ago in the Franco-Prussian War made them aware of how fast casualties can pile up with modernizing weaponry. German military doctrine would then tend to favor rapid movements and technological advancements to make the horrors of war end quicker. The Imperial German Army was one of the largest and best equipped armies in the world. They had also spent a decade preparing for how they would defeat France again. The “Schlieffen Plan” directed an invasion of Belgium and pushing hard into northern France to flank. The French and British armies sent in response were defeated and in retreat. The Germans made it 10 miles outside of Paris until they were heroically stopped in September 1914, in a battle called “The Miracle on the Marne.” The German and French armies in 1915 continued to fight battles costing 100,000’s of casualties every month.<br /> <br />Examining thousands of years of military history. The common soldier typically wasn’t exposed to immediate danger unless they were fighting directly in combat. However, the invention of modern artillery would dramatically change this. An artillery shell could be fired from miles away and hit many men and targets that are not directly participating in combat. This constant exposure to danger and death would traumatize many soldiers who could never get a psychological break. For example, in a single day the French would be able to fire as many artillery shells that were fired in the entirety of the Napoleonic wars. It is estimated that a total of 40-60 million artillery shells were fired over the 302 days at Verdun. <br /><br />In 1916, top German commander Erich von Falkenhayn had wagered that France could not tolerate much more casualties. On February 21,1916 the Germans would fire more than a million artillery shells in a single day. A combination of high-explosive, shrapnel, and chlorine-gas that would poison the French countryside for many decades after the battle. The strongest fortress of Verdun, Fort Douaumont, was captured just a few days later with little resistance. But France would not backdown from the setback. Instead, they stubbornly held on, with a single road being able to resupply and reinforce their front. <br /> <br /> Entrenchments and bunkers would provide cover for many soldiers in the hills around Verdun. The troops would anxiously wait days for their relievement. The soldiers who survived and marched back towards friendly lines were in bad shape. Their uniforms would be covered in mud and blood, and most of them were mute and couldn’t speak. Reinforcements arriving to the front were constantly exposed to artillery fire and could suffer as high as 50% casualties before even making it to the front. 10,000’s of German and Frenchmen perished without even having the opportunity to aim their rifle in combat. <br /><br />The carnage of Verdun would not be confined there. The British and Russians would begin massive offensives to try and help France. Offensives that would do more harm than good. For example, the opening of the Battle of the Somme with over 57,000 casualties, remains the single bloodiest day in British military history. The Russian Brusilov offensive would also be stalled with an estimated million casualties. And Russia would formally be out of the war next year. <br /> <br />Verdun lasted over 300 days and France would dedicate almost an entire generation of Uncles, Nephews, Brothers, and Husbands to the battle. Many men who were born in the previous century(1800’s) would meet their end during the First World War. The battle would be considered a French victory, but France would never be the same after the battle. With many of their soldiers engaging in mutiny the next year. It also provides context to France’s quick capitulation during the Second World War against Germany, when Vichy France was created. Senior French generals and politicians did not want to spend another generation of men in a battle against Germany. <br /><br />The casualties of this battle have been debated and adjusted for many decades. Germany and France each suffered 300,000-450,000 casualties. In less than a year and with a single battle, it is the same number of casualties each side suffered in the entirety of 5-year U.S. Civil War. <br /><br />[Online References]<br /><br />(<a href=\"https://www.historynet.com/hallowed-ground-verdun-france/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.historynet.com/hallowed-ground-verdun-france/</a> )<br /> <br />(<a href=\"https://www.history.com/news/the-first-battle-of-the-marne-100-years-ago\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.history.com/news/the-first-battle-of-the-marne-100-years-ago</a>)<br /> <br />(<a href=\"http://www.nhc-ul.org/Mil\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.nhc-ul.org/Mil</a> Hist - WWI Battle of Verdun Facts.pdf ) <br /><br />( <a href=\"https://www.historyhit.com/1916-battle-verdun/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.historyhit.com/1916-battle-verdun/</a> )<br /> <br />Artwork: \"Parade of the Dead\" by Georges Bertin Scott<br /> <br />Authored by R.E. Foy<br />",
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"content": "Battle of Verdun Ends\n106 years ago today in 1916, one of the longest and deadliest battles in human history, The Battle of Verdun, concludes in France during World War One.\n\nAs war broke out in 1914 between European powers. The tactics of war generally were stuck in the previous century. The German Empire’s victory against France 40 years ago in the Franco-Prussian War made them aware of how fast casualties can pile up with modernizing weaponry. German military doctrine would then tend to favor rapid movements and technological advancements to make the horrors of war end quicker. The Imperial German Army was one of the largest and best equipped armies in the world. They had also spent a decade preparing for how they would defeat France again. The “Schlieffen Plan” directed an invasion of Belgium and pushing hard into northern France to flank. The French and British armies sent in response were defeated and in retreat. The Germans made it 10 miles outside of Paris until they were heroically stopped in September 1914, in a battle called “The Miracle on the Marne.” The German and French armies in 1915 continued to fight battles costing 100,000’s of casualties every month.\n \nExamining thousands of years of military history. The common soldier typically wasn’t exposed to immediate danger unless they were fighting directly in combat. However, the invention of modern artillery would dramatically change this. An artillery shell could be fired from miles away and hit many men and targets that are not directly participating in combat. This constant exposure to danger and death would traumatize many soldiers who could never get a psychological break. For example, in a single day the French would be able to fire as many artillery shells that were fired in the entirety of the Napoleonic wars. It is estimated that a total of 40-60 million artillery shells were fired over the 302 days at Verdun. \n\nIn 1916, top German commander Erich von Falkenhayn had wagered that France could not tolerate much more casualties. On February 21,1916 the Germans would fire more than a million artillery shells in a single day. A combination of high-explosive, shrapnel, and chlorine-gas that would poison the French countryside for many decades after the battle. The strongest fortress of Verdun, Fort Douaumont, was captured just a few days later with little resistance. But France would not backdown from the setback. Instead, they stubbornly held on, with a single road being able to resupply and reinforce their front. \n \n Entrenchments and bunkers would provide cover for many soldiers in the hills around Verdun. The troops would anxiously wait days for their relievement. The soldiers who survived and marched back towards friendly lines were in bad shape. Their uniforms would be covered in mud and blood, and most of them were mute and couldn’t speak. Reinforcements arriving to the front were constantly exposed to artillery fire and could suffer as high as 50% casualties before even making it to the front. 10,000’s of German and Frenchmen perished without even having the opportunity to aim their rifle in combat. \n\nThe carnage of Verdun would not be confined there. The British and Russians would begin massive offensives to try and help France. Offensives that would do more harm than good. For example, the opening of the Battle of the Somme with over 57,000 casualties, remains the single bloodiest day in British military history. The Russian Brusilov offensive would also be stalled with an estimated million casualties. And Russia would formally be out of the war next year. \n \nVerdun lasted over 300 days and France would dedicate almost an entire generation of Uncles, Nephews, Brothers, and Husbands to the battle. Many men who were born in the previous century(1800’s) would meet their end during the First World War. The battle would be considered a French victory, but France would never be the same after the battle. With many of their soldiers engaging in mutiny the next year. It also provides context to France’s quick capitulation during the Second World War against Germany, when Vichy France was created. Senior French generals and politicians did not want to spend another generation of men in a battle against Germany. \n\nThe casualties of this battle have been debated and adjusted for many decades. Germany and France each suffered 300,000-450,000 casualties. In less than a year and with a single battle, it is the same number of casualties each side suffered in the entirety of 5-year U.S. Civil War. \n\n[Online References]\n\n(https://www.historynet.com/hallowed-ground-verdun-france/ )\n \n(https://www.history.com/news/the-first-battle-of-the-marne-100-years-ago)\n \n(http://www.nhc-ul.org/Mil Hist - WWI Battle of Verdun Facts.pdf ) \n\n( https://www.historyhit.com/1916-battle-verdun/ )\n \nArtwork: \"Parade of the Dead\" by Georges Bertin Scott\n \nAuthored by R.E. Foy\n",
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